n 

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



i|apT:^.9@tijo|ri0|t:fo 

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



^ 



THE 



PRACTICAL ASSISTANT, 



AND 



WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 



A TREASVRY OF USEFUL IXFORMATION 

RELATING TO 

THE ARTS AND SCIENCES OF EVERYDAY LIFE. 

CONTAINING 

USEFUL AXD RELIABLE PROCESSES. RECIPES. WRIXKEES, 

METHODS. RULES. DATA. TABLES, AXD HIXTS FOR 

THE FACTORY AXD THE HOUSEHOLD. 

THE SHOP AXD THE FARM. 




JOHN PHI 



NEW YORK: 

THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY, 

1891. 

Copyright. 1891. ?>// John Phin. 

5 



THE 



WORKSHOP COMPANION. 



A COLLECTION OP 



USEFUL Am RELIABLE EECIPES, RULES, PROCESSES, 
METHODS, WRINKLES, AND PRACTICAL HINTS 



For tlie Household and tte Stop. 



NEW YOEK: 
THE INDUSTEIAJL PUBLICATION COMPANY. 

1887. 

Copyright secured according to Act of Congress, 1879. 



xA 



s-i 



phef^ce:. 



The following pages have been prepared with very great 
care, the chief aim being to give none but recipes which 
will not disappoint those who attempt to use them. Sev- 
eral of the recipes here given are original, the formula? 
having been worked out or improved by the author after 
much labor and experiment. In searching for really good 
formulcs, we have been astonished at the errors which 
have crept into many of our standard books of recipes. 
For example, in one case the two separate operations of a 
well-knowm process for staining wood are given as distinct, 
and, of course useless recipes ! In a seemingly favorite re- 
cipe for a washing fluid, the reader is directed to add vine- 
gar to the ammonia employed, thus entirely neutralizing it. 
In the same way we find a recipe for transferring printed 
engravings to wood, in which the alkali (potash) is neutral- 
ized with vitriol ! We suppose that in the last case, the 
author of this recipe thought that two strong liquids must 
be better than one, forgetting or not knowing the fact that 
one destroys the effect of the other. A very slight knowl- 
edge of technological science would have enabled the com- 
pilers of these books to avoid such blunders. In addition 
to these defects, however, most of our large books of re- 
cipes contain so much that is entirely useless to the 
practical man, and so many mere repetitions of the same 
recipe in different language and terms, that their cost is 
greatly increased while their value instead of being en- 
hanced, is actually lessened. We have, therefore, en- 
deavored to combine in the following pages all that is 
really of practical value to the professional or amateur 
mechanic, and at the same time by giving only one or tw^o 



rV " PREFACE. 

of the best recipes under each head, we have noc only sim- 
plified the work, but we have brought it to such a size and 
price that every one can afford to buy it. 

The subjects treated of in this work are arrarged alpha- 
betically, so as to avoid the necessity of constant reference 
to the index. A few words in regard to the method pursued 
in arranging the matter may, however, not be out of place. 
As we believe that the greatest advantage will be derived 
from bringing together at one place not only the special 
instructions in regard to particular processes, but the 
general information relating to the materials, etc., em- 
ployed, we have in most cases collected all such matter 
together under one head. Thus, under the head of *' Steel " 
wall be found not only a description of the different kinds 
of steel, but directions for forging, tempering, etc., but as 
most persons who consult this book would most likely look 
under the head '' Tempering " for information on that par- 
ticular subject, we have entered the word *' Tempering" 
and under it give a cross-reference to *' Steel. " This is the 
reason why we have introduced so many cross references, 
every one of which was put in after the book was written, 
so that the reader will not be disappointed when he turns 
to the heading to which he is directed. Many of our read- 
ers, doubtless, know that in too many volumes of this kind, 
cross references are inserted merely for the purpose of 
swelling the apparent amount of information contained in 
the volume, and very often when the reader tons to the 
heading to which he is directed, he finds that the subject 
which he is looking for has been omitted. In the present 
case, the utmost care has been taken to prevent disappoint- 
ment of every kind, and whenever information is promised 
we have endeavored to give it fully, accurately, and in the 
simplest possible language. 

New York, Nov. 1879. 



THE 

WORKSHOP COMPANION. 



Abyssinian Gold. 

This compound was so called because it was brought out 
in England during the recent war with Abyssinia. It consists 
of copper, 90*74 ; zinc, 8*33. This alloy, if of good materials 
and not heated too highly, has a fine yellow color, resembling 
gold, and does not tarnish easily. 

Accidents. 

As those who are engaged in mechanical pursuits are pecu- 
liarly liable to accidents, we have introduced under the proper 
heads (Burns, Eye, Fires, Poisons) such brief suggestions as 
we thought might prove valuable to our readers. For more 
minute directions in regard to drowning, severe cuts, gunshot 
w^ounds, sprains, dislocations, etc. , we must refer the reader 
to some one of the numerous treatises which have been pub- 
lished on this subject*. The following general rules will be 
found useful in all cases : 

General Stales. 1. The first thing to be done in all cases 
is to send for a i^hysician. While the messenger is gone, 
endeavor to make the patient as comfortable as possible, and 
save him from all exertion, remembering that he needs all his 
strength. 2. If there be any severe bleeding, stanch the 
blood by means of compresses api^lied to the veins or arteries, 
as the case may be. 3. If the patient be insensible, place him 
on the ground or fioor, lying rather over to or directly on one 
side, and with the head slightly raised. Kemove necktie, 
collar, etc. , and unbutton or s j)lit oi)en any clothing pressing 

*Oiie of the best is that issued by the publishers of this volume. It 
is entitled " What to Do and How to Do it iu Case of Accident." Price 
30 cents. 



10 TnE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

tightly upon the neck, chest, or abdomen. 4. As a restora- 
tive, sprinkle the face with cold water, and then wipe it dry. 
Some cold water may be given to drink, if the power of swal- 
lowing be present, but do not pour stimulants down the 
throat, unless there be clear evidence that they are needed. 
5. Do not move the patient, unless to get him to a place of 
shelter, and when he has reached it, make him lie down and 
seek quiet. 6. Allow no useless talking, either to the jDatient, 
or in his presence. 7. Cause the bystanders to move back 
and leave a clear space of at least ten feet in every direction 
around the patient. One of the best restoratives is fresh air, 
and a crowd cuts this off completely. 

Stimulants should be avoided, except in cases urgently de- 
manding their administration, but they are agents of much 
value in the treatment of that condition of coUajise and faint- 
ness which very commonly occurs after some physical injur- 
ies. The symptoms may be briefly sketched : The face is 
pale and bedewed with cold or clammy perspiration ; the 
surface of the body generally cold ; the pulse flickering, per- 
haps hardly j^erceiDtible ; the j)atient complains of the feeling 
of faintness, and may have nausea, or even actual sickness ; 
the breathing is sighing and irregular, and for a time there 
may be actual insensibility. Now under such conditions 
there can be no question as to the proj^riety of inducing re- 
action by the administration of stimulants. 

Coffee given hot and strong, and in small quantities, is a 
safe and useful remedy. 

Sj3irituous liquors are more potent in their effects, and the 
good effect is produced more speedily. Brandy is the best 
spirit, given in more or less diluted form ; failirS this, rum 
or wine may be given. If the spirits can be obp-ined only 
from some low grog shop, then whiskey is to be preferred to 
brandy or wine, as being less liable to adulteration. In ad- 
ministering these articles the best practical rule is to give a 
small quantity at first and watch the effect ; if the surface 
becomes warmer, the breathing deeper and more regular, and 
the pulse at the wrist more perceptible, then there can be no 
question as to the advantage of giving even a little more ; but 
if these signs of improvement are wanting — if there be in- 
crease of insensibility, and deepening of color about the face, 
with access of heat of skin — withhold alcohol entirely ; it wiH 
but add to the mischief. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. H 

Alabaster. 

This material is so common and yields such beautiful re- 
sults when worked, that a few hints in regard to workmg and 
mending it may not be out of place. i • i . i 

There are two distinct chemical compounds to Avhicli the 
name of alabaster has been applied, the most common bemg 
the sulphate of lime, while that known as oriental alabaster ifi 
a stalaRmitic carbonate of lime, compact or fibrous, generally 
white, but of all colors from white to brown, and sometimes 
veined with colored zones ; it is of the same hardness as 
marble, is used for similar purposes, and is wrought by the 

same means. „-.. Vii „i 

Of the common alabaster (sulphate of hme) there are several 
varieties. The finest white alabaster is obtained from Italy, 
but very excellent specimens are found near Derby mJ^ng- 
land (Thev must not, however, be confounded with Derby- 
shire or fluor spar which is a calcic fluoride. ) The variegated 
kinds are turned into pillars, vases and various ornamental 
forms, the tools used being very simple, namely, pomts tor 
roughing out, flat chisels for smoothing, and one or two 
common firmer chisels, ground convex and concave tor 
curved lines. After being brought to the proper shape, the 
work is polished as follows : Take a piece of very fine, sott 
sandstone, and apply it with water to the work while m quick 
motion, moving the stone all over until there is worked up a 
body of mud. Then take a clean rag and work tnis sludge 
well on the alabaster, after which wash the work clean. 
Apply a rag charged with putty powder and water until there 
is a gloss upon the work, after which apply another rag 
charged with a mixture of putty powder, soap and water tor 
a short time, and wipe the alabaster dry. If carefully per- 
formed the polish will be very beautiful. -i. - A'f 
Alabaster readily absorbs grease and dirt, and as it is ciit- 
ficult to clean, great care should be taken to prevent it trom 
coming in contact with anything that wiU stain it. Dust, 
etc., may be removed by means of pure water to which a littie 
ammonia has been added. Grease and similar stains may be 
removed by allowing the alabaster to lie for some time m 
contact with a paste of powdered chalk moistened with a solu- 
tion of potash or soda Soap should never be used for clean- 
ing alabaster, as it leaves a greasy stain. Unlike marble, 



12 THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 

alabaster is not affected by common acids, and therefore they 
may be used for extracting stains of common ink, etc. 

The proper cement for uniting pieces of alabaster is plaster 
of paris made into a cream with water as for making ordinary 
casts. The surfaces to be joined must J3e moistened with 
water. 

Alcohol. 

This familiar liquid requires no description, but it may not 
be out of place to caution our readers that failure in the mak- 
ing of varnishes, etc. , very often arises from the use of alcohol 
which by standing has lost its strength. Ordinary alcohol is 
a mixture of alcohol and water, and as the alcohol evaporates 
more readily than the water, v/hen the mixture is allowed to 
stand for any length of time it becomes reduced in strength, 
that is to say the proportion of alcohol becomes less and that 
of the water more. 

Alloys. 

In making alloys, especially where the component metals 
vary greatly in fusibility and volatility, the following rules 
must be observed : 

1. Melt the least fusible, oxidable and volatile first, and 
then add the others heated to their point of fusion or near it. 
Thus if we desire to make an alloy of exactly one part cox)per 
and three zinc, it will be imiDossible to do so by putting these 
proportions of the metals in a crucible and exposing the 
whole to heat. Much of the zinc would fly off in vapor be- 
fore the copper was melted. First melt the copper and add 
the zinc which has been melted in another crucible. The 
zinc should be in excess, as some of it will be lost anyway. 

2. Some alloys, as copper and zinc, copper and arsenic, 
may be formed by exposing heated j^lates of the least fusible 
metal to the vapor of the other. In making brass in tho 
large way, thin plates of copper are dissolved as it were in 
melted zinc until the proper proportions have been obtained. 

3. The surface of all oxidable metals should be covered 
with some protecting agent, as tallow for very fusible ones ; 
resin for lead and tin ; charcoal for zinc, copper, etc. 

4. Stir the metal before casting, and, if possible, when 
casting, with a whitewood stick ; this is much better for the 
purpose than an iron rod. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 13 

5. If possible, add a small portion of old alloy to the new 
one. If tlie alloy is required to make sharp castings, and 
strength is not a very great object, the proportion of old alloy 
to the now should be increased. In all cases a new or 
thoroughly well cleaned crucible should be used. 

Alhata. — Known also as *' British plate," ^'electrum," etc. 
It is a favorite material for making articles that are to be 
electrotyped. The best proportions of the ingredients are 
^opper, 20 ; nickel, 4 ; zinc, 16. 

Alloy for filling holes in Iron. — ^Lead, 9 ; antimony, 2 ; bis- 
muth, 1. This alloy is sometimes called *' mock iron;" it 
expands in cooling, so that when a hole is filled with the 
melted alloy, the plug is not loose when it is cold. 

Alloy for tiniting Iron, Steel and Brass. — The following com- 
position may be cast on steel or iron, and will adhere firmly 
thereto. Its rate of expansion is nearer that of iron and steel 
than any similar compound. When cast around iron or steel 
therefore, it closes firmly around them and does not become 
loose by alternate expansion and contraction. It consists of 
tin, 3 ; copper, 39^ ; zinc, 7^. Since the last metal is partly 
converted into vapor at a high temperature, the above i^ro- 
portion may be slightly increased. 

Aluminimn Bronze. — Coj)per, 90 ; aluminium, 10. Eesem- 
bles gold in color, and is very strong and durable. 

Aluminium Silver. — Cop]3er, 70 ; nickel, 23 ; aluminium, 7. 
Has a beautiful color and takes a high polish. 

Amalgam for Silvering the insides of Globes, etc. — 1. Lead, 
2 oz. ; tin, 2 oz. ; bismuth, 2 oz. ; mercury, 4 oz. Melt the first 
three and add the mercury. The glass being well cleaned, 
is carefully warmed and the melted amalgam is poured in and 
the vessel turned round until all parts are coated. At a cer- 
tain temperature this amalgam adlieres readily to glass. 

2. Bismuth, 8 ; lead, 5 ; tin, 3 ; mercury, 8. Use as directed 
for No. 1. . I 

Amalgam for Electrical Machines. — 1. Tin, 1 oz. ; zinc, 1 oz. ; 
mercury, 2 oz. 

2. Boeiiger's Amalgam. — Zinc, 2 oz. ; mercury, 1 oz. At a 
certain temperature (easily found by experiment) it powders 
readily, and should be kept in a tightly corked bottle. Said 
to be very good. 

Cock Metal. — Copper, 10 ; lead, 4. Used for casting cocks. 

Copper Amalgam, — Dissolve 3 oz. sulphate of copper in 



U THE AVORKSHOP COMPANION. 

water and add 1 oz. sulphuric acid. Hang clean iron scraps in 
the solution until the coj^per has fallen down in line powder. 
AVash this powder, moisten it Avith a solution of protonitrale 
of mercury, and tlien to each ounce of the powder add 2i oz. 
mercury, and rub up in a mortar. When thoroughly mixed, 
wash v/ell Avitli hot water. This amalgam is easily moulded, 
adheres readily to glass, porcelain and some metals, takes a 
line i:)olish, and in 10 to 12 hours it becomes so hard that it 
will scratch gold or tin. When heated it softens, and may bo 
easily moulded. As it does not contract on cooling, it has 
been used by dentists for filling teeth, and it might be used 
to good advantage for inlaying lines in dark wood. 

Protonitrate of mercury is easily made by dissolving 
mercury in nitric acid. 

Bahhltt's Ant I- Attrition Metal for lining Boxes. — First melt 
four pounds of copper, and, wdien melted, add, by degrees, 
twelve pounds best quality Banca tin ; then add eight jjounds 
regulus of antimony, and then twelve pounds more of tin, 
while the comj)osition is in a melted state. After the copper 
is nielted a-nd four or five pounds of tin have been added, 
the heat should be lowered to a dull red heat, in order to 
jirevent oxidation ; then add the remainder of the metal. 
In melting the composition it is better to keep a small 
quantity of powdered charcoal in the pot, on the surface of 
the metal. 

The above composition is made in the first place, and is 
called hardening ; for lining work take one pound of the 
hardening and melt with tv»'o pounds Banca tin, vvliich pro- 
duces the very best lining metal. So that the proj^ortions 
for lining metal are four pounds copper, eight regulus of anti- 
mony and ninety-six pounds tin. 

The object in first prejoaring the hardening is economy, for 
when the whole is melted together there is a great waste of 
metal, as the hardening is melted at a much less degree of 
heat than the coj^i^er and antimony separately. 

Belgian Antifriction Metals. — For work exposed to great 
heat : Copper, 17 ; zinc, 1 ; tin, 0*5 ; lead, 0*25. 

For parts liable to much concussion : Copper, 20 ; zinc, 6 ; 
tin, 1. 

For parts exposed to much friction : Copper, 20 ; tin, 4 ; 
f.ntimony, 0*5 ; lead, 0*25. 

Cheap A7itifricti(m Metal — Equal parts of zinc and lead 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 15 

melted together, and well stirred at the time of pouring into 
the box or beariig. ' 

Fusible Metals. — These are chiefly used as a means of amiib?- 
ment, spoons fonned of them melting readily in hot tea or 
coffee. They haye also been used to make plugs for steam 
boilers, the intention being that they should melt and allow 
the steam to escape when the pressure became too gi-eat. No. 
4 havS been used for making casts of coins and medals, and the 
beautiful French cliche moulds were made of it. 

1. Newton's fusible metal : Bismuth, 8 ; lead, 5 ; tin, 3. 
Melts Ayith the heat of boiling water. 

2. Onion's metal : Lead, 3 ; tin, 2 ; bismuth, 5. Melts at 
197 degi'ees, Fahrenheit. 

3. Wood's fusible metal : Bismuth, 15 ; lead, 8 ; tin, 4 ; 
cadmium, 3. Melts between 150 and 160 deg. Fahr. 

4. Cliche metal : Bismuth, 8 ; tin, 4 ; lead, 5 ; antimony, 1. 
The metals should be rejjeatedly melted together and j^oured 
into droi3S or granulated, until they are well mixed. 

Feictei\ — Tin, 4; lead 1. Old articles of i^ewter.form 
therefore, a yery fine metal for solder. 

Queen's Metal. — Tin, 100 ; antimony, 8 ; copper, 4 ; bis- 
muth, 1. Resembles silyer in ai3pearance. 

Speculum Metal. — Copper, 32 ; tin, 15 ; arsenic, 2. First 
melt the copper, and then add the tin which should haye 
been melted in a separate crucible. Mix thoroughly and add 
the arsenic. 

Type Metal. — ^Lead, 44 ; antimony 8 ; tin, 1. 

Amber. 

Amber is principally obtained from the shores of the Baltic, 
but it is also found in other parts of Euroj^e. The most es- 
teemed is the opaque yariety, resembling the color of a lemon, 
and sometimes called fat amber ; the transparent pieces are 
yery brittle and yitreous. The German pipe makers, by 
whom it is principally used, employ thin scraping tools, and 
they bum a small lamp or place a little pan of burning char- 
coal beneath the amber to warm it slightly whilst it runs in 
the lathe. This preyents it from cliipx^ing out, but if it is too 
highly heated by friction it is apt to fly to jDieces. 

The finer specimens of amber, which are sometimes formed 
into gems and ornaments, are ground on lead plates made to 
reyolye in the lathe, any of the usual abrasiye substances 



16 THE AVOBKSHOP COMPANION. 

(sand or emery) being used. Tlie facets are then finished by 
means of a whetstone, and polished with chalk mixed with 
water or vegetable oil. The final finish is given by means of 
flannel. During the polishing process the amber becomes 
very warm and highly electric, and if this heating goes too 
far it wdll fly in pieces. The w^orkmen, therefore, cool it off 
every now and then. 

Amber, to Unite Broken Pieces. — Coat with linseed oil the 
surfaces that are to' be joined ; hold the oiled parts carefully 
over a charccal fire, a few hot cinders or a gaslight, being 
careful to cover uj) all the rest of the object loosely with 
I)aper. "When the oiled parts have begun to feel the heat so 
as to be sticky, j)ress and clamp them together and keep them 
so until nearly cold. Only that part v/here the edges are to 
be united must be warmed, and even that with care lest the 
form or polish of the other j)arts should be disturbed ; the 
2)art where the joint occurs generally requires to be repolished. 

Imitation Ambei\ — Of late, an imitation of amber, which 
cannot be distinguished from the genuine article by inspec- 
tion, has made its aj)j)earance on the market. It contains 
copal, camphor, tur23entine, and other ingredients, becomes 
electric by friction, and is used for manufacturing mouth- 
pieces for pipes, cigar-holders, ornaments, etc. The com- 
position may be distinguished from genuire amber by its 
lower melting point, as it quickly softens and melts when laid 
on a hot plate, while amber requires a comjjaratively high 
heat ; and further by the action of ether, which softens the 
imitation until it may be scraped away with the finger-nail, 
while true amber is absolutely insoluble in cold ether. 

Annealing and Hardening. 

For the best methods of annealing, hardening and temper- 
ing steel, see article steeij in this volume. Several valuable 
facts in regard to glass are also given under glass. 

Copper, brass, German silver and similar metals are hard- 
ened by hammering, rolling or v/ire drawing, and are softened 
by being heated red hot and plunged in water. Copper, by 
being alloyed with tin, may be made so hard that cutting in- 
struments may be made of it. This is the old process of 
hardening copper, which is so often claimed to be one of the 
lost arts, and which would be very useful if we did not have 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. it 

in steel a material which is far less costly and far better fitted 
for the making of edge tools. 

Antiseptic Preparations. 

Specimens of natural history intended for subsequent ex- 
amination and dissection are best preserved in alcohol, but as 
this is exiDensive, a saturated solution of 100 parts of alum 
and 2 parts of saltpetre may be used with good effect. For 
preserving stuffed specimens the following are generally 
used : 

Arsenical Soap. — This is the most powerful preservative in 
use. It is a strong poison, but is invaluable for preserv^ing 
skins of birds and beasts that are to be stuffed. It is made 
thus : Powdered arsenic, 2 oz. ; camphor, 5 oz. ; white soap, 
2 oz. ; salt of tartar (sub-carbonate of potash), 6 drachms ; 
powdered lime, 2 drachms. Cut the soap in veiy thin slices 
and heat gently with a small quantity of water, stirring all 
the time with a stick. "WTien thoroughly melted add the salt 
of tartar and the lime. When these are well mixed together 
add the arsenic, which must be carefully incorporated with 
the other ingredients. Take the mixture off the lire, and while 
cooling add the cam23hor, previously reduced to j)owder by 
rubbing it with a little alcohol. When finished the soap 
should be of the consistence of thick cream and should be 
kept in a tightly stopi^ed bottle. 

Arsenical Preservative Powder. — This is dusted over moist 
skins and flesh, and j^reserves almost any animal matter from 
putrefaction. It is thus made : Arsenic, 4 oz. ; burnt alum, 
i oz. ; tanner's bark, 8 oz ; mix and grind together to a very 
fine poYN^der. 

Beeswax. 

Beeswax is obtained by washing and melting the honey- 
comb. The product is yellow and is freed from its impurities, 
and bleached by melting it with hot water or steam, in a 
tinned copjDer or wooden vessel, letting it settle, running it 
off into an oblong trough with a line of holes in its bottom, 
BO as to distribute it ujion horizontal wooden cylinders, made 
to revolve, half immersed in cold water, and then exposing 
the thin ribbons or films thus obtained, to the blanching 
action of air, light, and moisture. For this purpose the nb- 
bons are laid upon long webs of canvas stretched horizontally 
between standards, two feet above the surface of a sheltered 



18 TliE WOETisnOP COMPANION. 

field, having a free exj)osure to the sunbeams. Here they 
are frequently turned over, then covered by nets to prevent 
their being blown away by winds, and watered from time to 
time, like linen upon the grass field in the old method of 
bleaching. Whenever the color of the wax seems stationary, 
it is collected, re-melted, and thrown again into ribbons ujDon 
the wet cylinder, in order to expose new surfaces to the bleach- 
ing oi)eration. By several repetitions of these processes, i/ 
tlie weather proves favorable, the w^ax becomes quite white. 

Black-boards. 

Various kinds of so-called '^ liquid slating " have been sold 
for converting any smooth board or wall into a black-board 
for school or other jDurposes. The following give very good 
results; No. 1 is probably the best, but is somewhat expen- 
sive. 

1. Take alcohol (95 per cent.), 4 pints; shellac, 8 ounces; 
la,mi3-black, 12 drachms; ultramarine blue, 20 drachms; pow- 
dered rotten stone, 4 ounces; powdered pumice stone, 6 
ounces. First dissolve the shellac in the alcohol, then add 
the other ingi-edients, finely powdered, and shake well. To 
apply the slating, have the surface of the board smooth and 
perfectly free from grease. Shake w^ell the bottle containing 
the preparation, pour out a small quantity only into an old 
tr.a-cup, and SLjyplj it with a new fiat varnish brush as rapidly 
as possible. Keep the bottle well corked, and shake it up every 
time before pouring out the liquid. 

2. Instead of alcohol take a solution of borax in water; dis- 
solve the shellac in this and color with lamp-black. 

3. Dilute silicate of soda (w^ater-glass) with art equal bulk 
of water, and add sufiicient lamp-black to color it.^ The lamp- 
black should be ground with water and a little of the silicate 
before being added to the rest of the liquid. 

Brass. 

Next to iron, brass is probably the most generally useful 
metal, and as the varieties of this alloy are almost infinite, the 
range of purposes to which it may be applied is very great. 
The color of the alloy inclines to red when the proportion of 
zinc is small, gradually changing to yellow, and ultimately 
wdiite, when the proportion of zinc is very large. The duc- 
tility and malleability of the alloy increase with the quantity 
of copper. Ordinary brass may be hammered, rolled into 



THE WORKSHOP COjMPANION. 19 

sheets or drawn to wire while cold, provided it is occasionally 
annealed by heating it to a very low red heat. When worked 
hot it crumbles to pieces under the hammer or between the 
rolls. But the so-called yellow metal, or Muntz metal, an 
alloy of 40 i3arts of zinc and 60 of copper, may be wrought 
while red hot, rolled into sheets and forged into bolts. Brass 
is not so readily oxidized as copper, being harder, tougher, 
more easily fusible and more fluid when molten. It solidilios 
without becoming honey-combed, and hence is suited for 
making all kinds of castings; while simply by the addition 
of from 1 to 2 per cent, of lead, it is cajDable of being readily 
worked on the lathe, and may then be filed without, as ifc 
otherwise does, clogging the teeth of the file. 

Finishing Brass. — The article having been brought to 
proper sha^^e by means of the lathe, file, grindstone or other 
means, the surface must be rendered smooth and free f i-oni 
lumps, utters, or scratches. If finished in the lathe, emery 
paper and oil may be used to smooth the surface, the final 
polish being imparted by rouge. In all cases where brass or 
other metals are polished by means of abrasive materials, great 
care must be taken that all corners are left shar23 and well- 
defined, since nothing looks so badly as a corner which ought 
to be square but which is worn and rounded in the process 
of polishing. 

In finishing brass work (and the same remark applies to 
the polishing of other materials) great care must be taken to 
avoid making any scratches which are deeper than the other 
marks left by the material emj)loyed. Such scratches are 
very difficult to remove by very fine files or by polishing 
powders, and therefore, whenever the work shows such 
scratches it is necessary to go back to the coarse file or scraper 
and begin anew. (See articles on Polislmig Metals and Polish' 
ing Powders.) 

Colmnng and Varnishing Brass. — To prevent the everyday 
rusting of brass goods, the trade has long resorted to means 
for protecting the surface from the action of the atmosphere, 
the first plan of which is to force a change to take place. 
Thus, if brass is left in damp sand, it acquires a beautiful 
brown color, which, when polished with a dry brush, remaiiss 
permanent and requires no cleaning. It is also possible to 
impart a green and light coating of verdigris on the surface 
of the brass by means of dilute acids, allowed to dry spon- 



2^ THE WOKKSHOP COMPAKION. 

taneously. The antique appearance thus given is very pleas- 
ing, and more or less, permanent. But it is not alv/ays pos- 
sible to wait for goods so long as such processes require, and 
hence more speedy methods became necessary, many of which 
had to be further protected by a coat of varnish. Before 
bronzing, however, all the requisite fitting is finished, and the 
brass annealed, pickled in old or dilute nitric acid, till the 
scales can be removed from the surface, scoured wdth sand 
and water, and dried. Bronzing is then performed according 
to the color desired; for although the word means a brown 
color, being taken from the Italian " hronzino,^^ signifying 
burnt brown, yet in commercial language it includes all 
colors. {See article on Bronzing. ) 

Browns of all shades are obtained by immersion in solu- 
tions of nitrate or the perchloride of iron; the strength of 
the solutions determining the depth of the color. Violets are 
produced by dipping in a solution of chloride of antimony. 
Chocolate is obtained by burning on the surface of the brass 
moist red oxide of iron, and polishing with a very small 
quantity of blacklead. 

Olive-green results from making the surface black by means 
of a solution of iron and arsenic in muriatic acid, the details 
of the process being as follows: 

Make the articles bright, then dip in aqua fortis, which 
must be thoroughly rinsed off with clean water. Then make 
the following mixture : Hydrochloric acid, 6 lbs. ; sulphate of 
iron, \ lb. ; white arsenic, ^ lb. Be careful to get all the in- 
gredients pure. Let the articles lie in the mixture till black,* 
take out and dry in hot sawdust, polish with blacklead, and 
lacquer with green lacquer composed of one part lac varnish, 
four of turmeric, and one of gamboge. 

A steel-gray color is deposited on brass from a dilute boil- 
ing solution of chloride of arsenic; and a blue by careful 
treatment with strong hyx3osulphite of soda. 

Black is much used for oj^tical brass work, and is obtained 
by coating the brass with a solution of platinum, or with 
chloride of gold mixed with nitrate of tin. The Japanese 
bronze their brass by boiling it in a solution of sulphate of 
copper, alum and verdigris. 

Success in the art of bronzing greatly depends on circum- 
stances, such as the temperature of the alloy or of the solu- 
tion, the proportions of the metals used in forming the alloy. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 21 

and the quality of the materials. The moment at which to 
withdraw the goods, the drying of them, and a hundred little 
items of care and manipulation, require attention which ex- 
l^erience alone can impart. 

To avoid gi vdng any artificial color to brass, and yet to pre- 
serve it from becoming tarnished, it is usual to cover properly 
cleaned brass with a varnish called ''lacquer." To prepare 
the brass for this, the goods, after being annealed, pickled, 
scoured and washed, as already explained, are either dipped 
for an instant in pure commercial nitrous acid, washed in 
clean water, and dried in sawdust, or immersed in a mixture 
of one i^art of nitric acid with four of water, till a white curd 
covers the surface, at which moment the goods are withdrawn, 
•washed in clean water, and dried in sawdust. In the first 
case the brass will be bright; in the latter, a dead flat which 
is usually relieved by burnishing the prominent parts. Then 
the goods are dipped for an instant in commercial nitric acid, 
and well washed in water containing some argol (to preserve 
the color till lacquered), and dried in warm sawdust. So pre- 
pared, the goods are conveyed to the lacquer room, where 
they are heated on a hot plate and varnished. 

The varnish used is one of sjoirit, consisting, in its sunj^le 
form, of one ounce of shellac dissolved in one pint of alcohol. 
To this simple varnish are added such coloring substances as 
red Sanders, dragon's-blood, and annatto, for imparting rich- 
ness of color. To lower the tone of color, turmeric, gamboge, 
saffiron. Cape aloes, and sandarac are used. The first group 
reddens, the second yellows the varnish, while a mixture of 
the two gives a pleasing orange. [See article on Lacquer, ) 

To Whiten Brass. — Small articles of brass or copper may 
be whitened by boiling them in a solution of | lb. cream of 
tartar, 2 quarts of water, and 1 lb. grain tin or any pure tin 
finely divided. The tin dissolves in the cream of tartar and 
is again precipitated on the brass or coj^per. 

Depositing Brass by Electricity. — The first step is to tx^or- 
oughly cleanse the articles, either by means of emery, or by 
laying them overnight in a weak bath of sulphuric acid. 
They are then washed off with water, a weak soda solution, 
and then immersed as the cathode of a bath consisting of 2^ 
parts of sulphate of cojDper, 20 parts sulphate of zinc, and 45 
parts cyanide of potassium, in 300 parts of water. The anode 
should be two plates of zinc and copjoer of equal size. The 



22 THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 

color of clie resulting brass coating may be modified by 
varying tlie depth of immersion of one or the other of the 
2:>lates. The galvanic cun*ent should be a strong one, and 
the liberation of hydrogen bubbles on the object to be 
brassed should be plentiful. It is important, however, to 
note that the objects should be first coppered to insure a 
strong attachment of the brass coating. 

Coating Brass with Copper. — The following valuable process 
for coating brass with copper, is given by Dr. C. Puscher: 
Dissolve ten parts, by weight, of sulphate of copper, and five 
of sal-ammoniac, in one hundred and fifty parts, by weight, 
of water. Place the brass, w^ell cleaned and free from fatty 
matter on its surface, into this mixture ; leave it in it for a 
minute; let the excess of liquid drain off first, and heat the 
metal next over a charcoal fire, until the evolution of am- 
moniacal vapors ceases, and the coppery film apj)ears per- 
fect. Wash Avith cold water and dry. The coating of cop- 
per adheres firmly. 

Cleaning Brass. — Large articles of brass and copper which 
have become very much soiled may be cleaned by a mixture 
of rotten-stone powder (or any 8narp polishing powder) with 
a strong solution of oxalic acid. After being thoroughly 
cleaned, the metal should be wiped off with a cloth moistened 
with soda or potash, and a very light coating of oil should be 
applied to j^revent the further corroding action of the acid. 

A more pow^erful cleaning agent, because very corrosive, 
is finely powdered bichromate of potash mixed with twice 
its bulk of strong sulphuric acid and diluted (after standing 
an hour or so) with an equal bulk of w^ater. 'This w^ill in- 
stantly clean the dirtiest brass, but gTeat care must be taken 
in handling the liquid, as it is very corrosive. 

Brass w^hich has been lacquered should never be cleaned 
with polishing powders or corrosive chemicals. Wi]3ing 
v/ith a soft cloth is sufficient, and in some cases washing with 
weak soap and w^ater may be admissible. Dry the articles 
thoroughly, taking care not to scratch them, and if, after 
this, they show much sign of wear or corrosion, send them to 
the lacquerer to be refinished. 

Brazing and Soldering. 

The term soldei^lng is generally apiolied when fusible alloys 
of lead and tin are emi3loyed for uniting metals. When hard 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. ^^ 

fiietals, such as copper, brass or silver are used, the term 
brazing (derived from brass) is more aj)proi3riate. 

In uniting tin, copper, brass, etc., %vith any of the soft 
Solders, a copper soldering-iron is generally used. This tool 
and the manner of using it are too "well known to need de* 
scription. In many cases, however, the work tiiay be dono 
more neatly without the soldering-iron, by filing or turning 
the joints so that they fit closely, moistening them with the 
soldering fluid described hereafter^ placing a piece of smooti): 
tin-foil between them, tying them together with binding \vire, 
and heating the whole in a lamp or tire till the tin-foil inelts, 
We have often joined pieces of brass in this way so that the 
joints were quite invisible. Indeed, wdth good soft solder 
almost all work may be done over a spirit lamp or even a 
candle, without the use of a soldering-iron. 

More minute directions may be found in the Young Scien- 
tist , Vol. I, page 56. 

Advantage may be taken of the varying degrees of fusi- 
bility of solders to make several joints in the same piece of 
work. Thus, if the first joint has been made wdth line tin- 
ner's solder, there would be no danger of melting it in mak- 
ing a joint near it with bismuth solder, composed of lead, 4; 
tin, 4; and bismuth, 1; and the melting point of both is far 
enough removed from that of a solder comj)osed of lead, 2; 
tin, 1; and bismuth, 2; to be in no danger of fusion during 
the use of the latter. • 

Soft solders do not maKb malleable joints. To join brass, 
coj)per or iron so as to have the joint very strong and malle- 
able, hard solder must be used. For this purpose equal 
parts of silver and brass will be found excellent, though for 
iron, copper, or very infusible brass, nothing is better than 
silver coin rolled out thin, which may be done by any silver- 
smith or dentist. This makes decidedly the toughest of all 
joints, and as a little silver goes a long way, it is not very 
expensive. 

For most hard solders borax is the best flux. It dissolves 
any oxides which may exist on the surface of the metal, and 
protects the latter from the- further action of the air, so that 
the solder is enabled to come into actual contact with the 
surfaces which are to be joined. For soft solders the best 
flux is a soldering fluid which may be prepared by saturating 
hydrochloric acid (spirit of salt) with zinc. The addition of 



U THE WOimSHOI^ COMPANION. 

a little sal ammoniao imj)i'OYes lu. It is feaid tliat a solution 
of pliosplioric acid in alcoliol makes an excellent soldering 
fluid, 'Wihicli has some advanta^r^es over chloride of zinc. 

In using ordinary tinner's solder for uniting Surfaces that 
are already tinned-==-such as tinned X)late and tinned copper — • 
resin is the best and cheapest flux, but Avhen surfaces of iron, 
brass or copper that have not been tinned are to be joined by 
feoft solder, the soldering fluid is by far the most convenient, 
ilesin possesses this imjportant advantage over soldering fluid, 
that it does not induce subsequent corrosion of the article to 
which it is applied. When acid fluxes have been a^Dplied to 
anything that is liable to rust, it is necessary to see that they 
are thoroughly washed off with clean warm water and the 
articles carefully and thoroughly dried. ^ 

Oil and powdered resin mixed togethb^ maxre a good flux 
for tinned articles. The mixture can be axDplied with a small 
brush or a swab tied to the end of a stick. 

In j)rei3aring solders, whether hard or soft, great care is 
requisite to avoid tw^o faults — a want of uniformity in the 
melted mass, and a change in the proj)ortions of the con- 
stituents by the loss of volatile or oxidable ingredients. Thus, 
where copper, silver, a<nd similar metals are to be mixed with 
tin, zinc, etc. , it is necessary to molt the more infusible metal 
first. When copper and zinc arc heated together, a large 
jDortion of the zinc passes off in fumes. In preparing soft 
solders, the material should be melted under tallow, to pre- 
vent waste by oxidation; and in melting hard solders, the 
same object is accomplished by covering them with a thick 
layer of powdered charcoal. 

To obtain hard solders of uniform eomiDOsition, they are 
generally granulated by pouring them into water through a 
wet broom. Sometimes they are cast in solid masses and 
reduced to powder by filing. Silver solders for jewelers are 
generally rolled into thin plates, and sometimes the soft 
solders, esj)ecially those that are very fusible, are rolled into 
sheets and cut into narrow strips, which are very convenient 
for small work that is to be heated by a lamp. 

The following simple mode of making solder wire, which 
is very handy for small work, v/ill be found useful. Take a 
sheet of stiff v/ritiDg or drawing iiai)er, and roll it in a coni- 
cal form, rather broad in comparison with its length. Make 
a ring of stiff wire, to hold it in, attaching a suitable handle 



THE WOEKSHOT* COMPANION. 23 

to the ring. The point of the cone may first of all be cut off* 
to leave an orifice of the size required. When filled with 
molten solder it should be held al)ove a i^ail of cold water; 
and the stream of solder flowing from the cone will congeal 
as it runs, and form the wire. If held a little higher, so that 
the stream of solder breaks into drops, before striking the 
water, it will form handy, elongated *' tears" of metal; but, 
by holding it still higher, each drop forms a thin concave 
cup or shell, and, as each of these forms have their own 
peculiar uses in business, many a mechanic will find this hint 
very useful. 

Hard solders are usually reduced to powder either by 
granulation or filing, and then spread along the joints after 
being mixed with borax, v/hich has been fused and powdered. 
It is not necessary that the grains of solder should be placed 
between the pieces to be joined, as with the aid of the borax 
they will '' sweat " into the joint as soon as fusion takes ]3lace. 
The same is true of soft solder applied with soldering fluid. 
One of the essential requisites of success, however, is that 
the surfaces be clean, bright, and free from all rust. 

The best solder for j/latinum is fine gold. The joint is not 
only very infusible, but it is not easily acted upon by common 
agents. For German-silver joints, an excellent solder is 
composed of equal parts of silver, brass, and zinc. The proper 
flux is borax. 

Bronzing. 

Two distinct processes have had this name applied to them. 
The first consists in staining brass work a dark brown or 
bronze color and lacquering it; the second consists in par- 
tially corroding the brass so as to give it that greenish hue 
which is peculiar to ancient brass work. The first is gen- 
erally applied to instruments and apparatus, the second to 
articles of ornament. 

Brwize for Brass Instruments. — 1. The cheapest and sim- 
plest is undoubtedly a light coat of plumbago or black lead. 
After brushing the article with plumbago place it on a clear 
fire till it is made too hot to be touched. Apply a plate 
brush as soon as it ceases to be hot enough to burn the brush. 
A few strokes of the brush will produce a dark brown polish 
approaching black, but entirely distinct from the well known 
appearance of bl^ck lead. Lacquer with any desii'ed ti»t, 



26 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

2. Plate i^owder or roiig^e may be used instead of plum- 
bago, and gives very beautiful effects. 

3. Make the articles clean, bright and free from oil or 
grease, then dip in aqua fortis, which must be thoroughly 
)'insed off with clean warm water. • Then make the following 
mixture : Hydrochloric acid, 6 lbs. ; sulphate of iron, I lb. ; 
white arsenic, i lb. Be careful to get all the ingredients 
pure. Let the articles lie in the mixture till black, take out 
and dry in hot saw dust, polish with black lead, and lacquer 
with green lacquer. 

Antique Bronze. — Dissolve 1 oz. sal-ammoniac, 3 oz. cream 
tartar, and 6 oz. common salt in 1 pint of hot water; ad.d 2 
oz. nitrate of copper dissolved in \ pint of water; mix well, 
and, by means of a brush, apply it repeatedly to the article, 
which should be placed in a damp situation. 

Bronzing Liquid. — Dissolve 10 parts of fuchsine and 5 parts 
of aniline-purple in 100 parts of 95 per cent, alcohol on a 
water bath; after solution has i,aken place, add 5 parts of 
benzoic acid, and keep the whole boiling for 5 or 10 minutes, 
until the green color of the mixture has given place to a fine 
light bronze-brown. This liqui*i may be applied to ail 
metals, as well as many othe* substances, yields a very 
brilliant coating, and dries quickj,r* It is api)lied with a 
brush. * 

Bronzing Wood, Leather, Paper, etc, — 1. Dissolve gum lac 
in four parts by volume of pure alcohol, and then add bronze 
or any other metal pow der in the proportion of one part to 
three parts of the solution. The surface to be covered must 
be very smooth. In the case of wood, one or several coats of 
Mendon or Spanish white are given, tind the object is care- 
fully x)olished. The mixture is painted on, and when a suf- 
ficient number of coats have been given, the object is Avell 
VYibbed. A special advantage of this process is that the 
coating obtained is not dull, but can be burnished. 

2. Another method is to coat the object with coj)al or 
other varnish, and when this has dried so far as to become 
-* tacky " dust bronze powder over it. Aiter a few hours the 
bronzed surface should be burnished with a burnisher of 
steel or agate. 

drowning Gun Barrels, (See Qum.) 



THE WORKSMO^ COMPANION. 27 

Burns. 

Those who work in red-hot metals, glass blowing, etc. , are 
sometimes apt to bum their fingers. It is well to know that 
a solution of bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) jDromj^tly and 
permanently relieves all pain. The points to be observ^ed 
are : 1. Bicarbonate of soda must be used; washing soda 
and common soda are far too irritant to be api^lied if the 
burn is serious. 2. The solution must be saturated. 3. The 
solution must be ice-cold. 

A laboratory assistant in Philadelphia having severely 
burned the inside of the last joint of his thumb while bend- 
ing glass tubing, apj)lied the solution of bicarbonate of soda, 
and not only was the i)ain allayed, but the thumb could be 
at once freely used without inconvenience. 

Case-Hardening. (See Iron.) 
Catgut. 

This material is so valuable for many purposes that many 
mechanics will find it useful to know how to make it, as they 
can then XDrovide themselves with any size and length that 
may be needed. The i)rocess is quite simple. Take the en- 
trails of sheep or other animals, remembering that fat animals 
afford a very weak string, while those that are lean produce 
a much tougher article, and thoroughly clean them from all 
impurities, attached fat, etc. The animal should be newly 
killed. Wash well in clean water and soak in soft water for 
tvv^o days, or in winter for three days ; lay them on a table or 
board and scrape them with a small j)late of copper having a 
semicircular hole cut in it, the edges of which must be quite 
smooth and not capable of cutting. After washing j)ut them 
into fresh water and then let them remain till the next day, 
when they are to be vrell scraped. Let them soak again in 
water for a night, and two or three hours before they are 
taken out add to each gallon of water 2 oz. of potash. They 
ought now to scrape quite clean from their inner mucous 
coat, and will consequently be much smaller in dimensions 
than at first. They may now be wij^ed dry, slightly twisted, 
and passed through a hole in a piece of brass to equalize their 
size; as they dry they are passed every two or three hours 
through other holes, each smaller than the last. When dry 
they w^ill be round and well polished, ^nd after being oile4 
are fit for use, 



23 THE WOKKSHOP COl^IPANION. 

Cements. 

Genei^al Rules. — Some years a^o the writer called attention* 
to the fact that quite as much depends upon the manner in 
which a cement is used as upon the cement itself. The Lest 
cement that ever was compounded would prove entirely 
worthless if improperly applied. The following rules must 
be vigorously adhered to if success would be secured: 

1. Bring the cement into intimate contact v/ith the sur- 
faces to be united. This is best done by heating the pieces 
to be joined in those cases where the cement is melted by 
heat, as in using resin, shellac, marine glue, etc. Wliere 
solutions are used, the cement must be well rubbed into the 
surfaces either with a soft brush (as in the case of porcelain 
or glass), or by rubbing the two surfaces together (as in mak- 
ing a glue joint between two pieces of wood. ) 

2. As little cement ^s possible should be allowed to remain 
between the united surfaces. To secure this the cement 
should be as liquid as possible (thoroughly melted if used 
with heat), and the surfaces should be pressed closely into 
contact (by screws, weights, wedges or cords) until the cement 
has hardened. 

Where the cement is a solution (such as gum in water) and 
the surfaces are very absorbent (such as porous paper), the 
surfaces must be saturated -^ith. cement before they are brought 
together. 

1. Plenty of time should b 5 allowed for the cement to dry 
or harden, and this is particularly the case in oil cements 
such as copal varnish, boiled oil, white lead, etc. When two 
surfaces, each half an inch across, are joined by means of a 
layer of white lead placed between them, six months may 
elapse before the cement in the middle of the joint has be- 
come hard. In such cases a few days or weeks are of no 
account; at the end of a month the joint will be weak and 
easily separated, while at the end of two or three years it may 
be so firm that the material will part anywhere else tha^n at 
the joint. Hence, where the article is to be used immediately, 
the only safe cements are those which are liquified by heat 
and which become hard when cold. A joint made with 
marine glue is firm an hour after it has been made. Next 
to cements that are liquified by heat, are those which consist 

♦Technologist, Yol. I (1870), page 188, 



THE WOE SHOP COMPANION. 29 

of substances dissolved in water or alcohol. A glue joint sets 
firmly in twenty-four hours; a joint made with shellac var- 
nish becomes dry in two or three days. Oil cements, whicli 
do not dry by evaporation, but harden by oxidation (boiled 
oil, white lead, red lead, etc.), are the slowest of all. 

Aquarium Cement. — Litharge; fine, white, dry sand and 
plaster of paris, each 1 gill; finely pulverized resin, ^ gill. 
Mix thoroughly and make into a paste with boiled linseed 
oil to which dryer has been added. Beat it well, and let it 
stand four or five hours before using it. After it has stood 
for 15 hours, however, it loses its strength. Glass cemented 
into its frame with this cement is good for either salt or 
fresh water. It has been used at the Zoological Gardens, 
London, with great success. It might be useful for con- 
structing tanks for other purposes or for stopping leaks. 

Armenian Cement. — The jewellers of Turkey, who are 
mostly Armenians, have a singular method of ornamenting 
watch cases, etc., with diamonds and other precious stones 
by simply gluing or cementing them on. The stone is set in 
gold or silver, and the lower part of the metal made flat or 
to correspond with that part to which it is to be fixed. It is 
then warmed gently and the glue applied, which is so very 
strong that the parts thus cemented never separate. This 
gflie, which will firmly unite bits of glass and even polished 
steel, and may, of course, be applied to a vast variety of useful 
purposes, is thus made : Dissolve five or six bits of gum 
mastic, each the size of a large pea, in as much alcohol as 
vfill suffice to render it liquid; in another vessel dissolve as 
much isinglass, previously a little softened in water, (though 
none of the water must be used,) in good brandy or rum, as 
will make a two-ounce phial of very strong glue, adding two 
-small bits of gum galbanum, or ammoniacum, which must 
be rubbed or ground until they are dissolved. Then mix 
the whole with a sufficient heat, keep the glue in a phial 
closely stopi^ed, and when it is to be used set the j)hial in 
foiling water. To avoid the cracking of the phial by ex- 
posure to such sudden heat, use a thin green glass phial, and 
hold it in the steam for a few seconds before ir^mersin,^ it in 
the hot water. > 

BucJdand's Cemeiit. — Finely powdered white sugar, 1 jz. ; 
finely jDowdered starch, 3 oz. ; finely powdered gum arable, 
4 oz. Bub well together in a dry mortar; then little by little 



30 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

add cold water until it is of the thickness of melted glue; put 
in a wide mouthed bottle and cork closely. The powder, 
thoroughly ground and mixed, may be kept for any length of 
time in a wide mouthed bottle, and when wanted a little may 
be mixed with water with a stiff brush. It answers ordinarily 
for all the purj)oses for which mucilage is used, and as a 
cement for labels it is specially good, as it does not become 
brittle and crack off. 

Casein Mucilage. — Take the curd of skim-milk (carefully 
freed from cream or oil), wash it thoroughly and dissolve it 
to saturation in a cold concentrated solution of borax. This 
mucilage keeps well, and as regards adhesive power far sur- 
passes the mucilage of gum arabic. 

Casein and Soluble Glass. — Casein dissolved in soluble 
silicate of soda or ]3otassa, makes ^ very strong cement for 
glass or porcelain. 

Cheese Cement for mending Cli.na, etc. — Take skim milk 
cheese, cut it in slices and boil it in water. Wash it in cold 
water and knead it in warm vrater several times. Place it 
warm on a levigating stone and knead it with quicklime. It 
will join marble, stone or earthenware so th^.t the joining is 
scarcely to be discovered. 

Chinese Cement (Schio-Uao). — To three parts of fresh bestten 
blood- are added four parts of slaked lime and a little alum; 
a thin, pasty mass is produced, which can be used imme- 
diately. 01)jects which are to be made specially water-23roof 
are painted by the Chinese twice, or at the most three times. 
Dr. Scherzer saw in Pekin a wooden box which had tra^'clled 
the tedious road via Siberia to St. Petersburg and back, 
which was found to be perfectly sound and water-jDroof. 
Even baskets made of straw became, by the use of this 
cement, perfectly serviceable in the transi:»ortation of oil. 
Pasteboard treated therevvith receives the appearance and 
strengih of wood. Most of the wooden public buildings of 
China are painted with schio-liao, which gives them an un- 
l)leasant reddish appearance, but adds to their durability. 
This cement was tried in the Austrian dej^artment of Agri- 
culture, and by the '* Vienna Association of Industry," and 
in both cases the statements of Dr. Scherzer were 'found to 
be strictly accurate. 

Chi7iese Glue. — Shellac dissolved in alcohol. Used for 
joining wood, earthenware, glass, etc. This cement requircKS 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 81 

considerable time to become thoroughly hard, and even then 
is not as strong as good glue. Its portability is its only 
recommendation. 

Faraday's Gap Cement. — Electrical Cement. — Resin, 5 oz. ; 
beeswax 1 oz. ; red ochre or Venetian red in powder, 1 oz. 
Dry the earth thoroughly on a stove at a temperature above 
212^. Melt the wax and resin together and stir in the 
powder by degrees. Stir until cold, lest the earthy matter 
settle to the bottom. Used for fastening brass work to glass 
tubes, flasks, etc. 

Glctss, Earthenware, etc., Cement for. — Dilute white of egg 
with its bulk of water and beat up thoroughly. Mix to the 
consistence of thin paste with powdered quicklime. Must 
be used immediately. 

Qlass Cement. — Take pulverized glass, 10 parts; powdered 
fluorspar, 20 parts; soluble silicate of soda, 60 parts. Both 
glass and fluorspar must be in the finest jDossible condition, 
which is best done by shaking each, in fine powder, with 
water, allowing the coarser particles to deposit, and then to 
pour off the remainder which holds the finest particles in 
suspension. The mixture must be made very rapidly, by 
quick stirring, and when thoroughly mixed must be at once 
applied. This is said to yield an excellent cement. 

Glue is undoubtedly the most important cement used in 
the arts. Good glue is hard, clear (not necessarily light- 
colored, however, ) and free from bad taste and smell. Glue 
which is easily dissolved in cold water is not strong. Good 
glue merely sAvells in cold water and must be heated to the 
boiling point before it will dissolve thoroughly. 

Good glue requires more water than poor, consequently 
you cannot dissolve six pounds of good glue in the same 
quantity of water you can six pounds of poor. The best glue, 
Avhich is clear and red, wdll require from one-half to more 
than double the Avater that is required with poor glue, and 
the quality of which can be discovered by breaking a piece. 
If good, it will break hard and tough, and w^hen broken 
will be irregular on the broken edge. If poor, it will break 
comparatively easy, leaving a smooth, straight edge. 

In dissolving glue, it is best to w eigh the glue, and weigh 
or measure the water. If not done there is a liability of get- 
ting more glue than the w^ater can properly dissolve. It is a 
good plan, when once the quantity of w^ater that anj^ sample 



32 THE WOEXSSOP COMPANION". 

of glue will take up has been ascertained, to put the glue and 
water together at least six hours before heat is apj)lied, and 
if it is not soft enough then, let it remain longer in soak, for 
there is no danger of good glue remaining in j)ure water, even 
for forty-eight hours. 

From careful experiments with dry glue immersed for 
twenty-four hours in water at 60° !Fah., and thereby trans- 
formed into a jelly, it was found that the finest ordinary glue, 
or that made from white bones, absorbs twelve times its 
weight of water in twenty -four hours; from dark bones, the 
glue absorbs nine times its weight of water; while the ordi- 
nary glue made from animal refuse, absorbs but three to five 
times its weight of water. 

Glue, being an animal substance, it must be kept sweet; 
to do this it is necessary to keep it cool after it is once dis- 
solved, and not in use. In all cases keep the glue-kettle clean 
and sweet, by cleansing it often. 

Great care must be taken not to bum it, and, therefore, it 
should always be prepared in a water bath. 

Garpenters should remember that fresh glue dries more 
readily than that which has been once or twice melted. 

The advantage of frozen glue is that it can be made wp at 
once, on account of its being so porous. Frozen glue of 
same grade is as strong as if dried. 

If glue is of first-rate quality, it can be used on most kinds 
of wood work very thin, and make the joint as strong as the 
original. Wliite glue is only made white by bleaching. 

Ghce^ Liquid. — 1. A very strong glue may be made by dis- 
solving 4 oz. of glue in 16 ounces of strong acetic acid by the 
aid of heat. It is semi-solid ?vt ordinary temperatures, but 
needs only to be Avarmed, by jDlacing the vessel containing it 
into hot water, to be ready for use. 

2. Dilute officinal phosphoric acid with two jDarts, by 
w^ eight of vvater, and saturate with carbonate of ammonia; 
dilute the resulting liquid, which must be still somewhat 
acid, with another part of distilled water, warm it on a water- 
bath, and dissolve in it enough good glue to form a thick, 
syrupy liquid. It must be kept in well-closed bottles. 

3. A most excellent form is also Dumouli7i's Liquid and 
Unalterable Glue. This is made as follows : Dissolve 8 oz. of 
best glue in J pint of water in a wide-mouthed bottle, by 
lieating' the bottle in a water-bath. Then add slov/ly 2 J oz. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 33 

of nitric acid, spec. gr. 1330, btirring constantly. Effer- 
vescence takes place under escape of nitrv.~^s acid gas. When 
all the acid has been added, the liquid is allowed to cool. 
Keep it well corked, and it will be ready for use at any 
moment. It does not gelatinize, or putrefy or ferment. It 
is ai3plicable to many domestic uses, such as mending china, 
wood, etc. 

Glue, Month. — Good glue, 1 lb.; ism^lass. 4- 02. Soften in 
vv^ater, boil and add \ lb. line brown sugar. Boil till pretty 
thick and pour into moulds. 

Glue, Portable. — Put a pinch of shredded gelatine into a 
wide-mouthed bottle ; put on it a very little water, and about 
one-fourth part of glacipJ acetic acid; put in a well-litting 
cork. If the right quantity of water and acid be used, the 
gelatine will swell up into worm-like pieces, quite elastic, but 
at the same time, firm enough to be handled comfortably. 
The acid Avill make the preparation keep indefinitely. "When 
required for use, take a small fragment of the SAvelled gela- 
tine, and warm the end of it in the flame of a match or candle ; 
it will immediately *'run" into a fine clear glue, which can 
be ai3plied at once direct to the article to be mended. The 
thing is done in half a minute, and is, moreover, done well, 
for the gelatine so treated makes the very best and finest glue 
that can be had. This jjlan might be modified by dissolving 
a trace of chrome alum in the water used for moistening the 
gelatine, in which cp^se, no doubt, the glue would become 
insoluble when set. But for general iDurposeSj there is no 
need for subsequent insolubility in glue. 

Gutta-Perclia Cement. — This highly recommended cement 
is made by melting together, in an iron pan, 2 parts common 
pitch and 1 part gutta-percha, stirring them well together 
until thoroughly incorporated, and then pouring the liquid 
into cold water. When cold it is black, solid, and elastic; 
but it softens wdth heat, and at 100^ Fahr. is a thin fluid. 
It may be used as a soft paste, or in the liquid state, and 
answers an excellent purpose in cementing metal, glass, 
porcelain, ivory, &c. It may be used instead of putty for 
glazing windows. 

Iron Cement for dosing the Joints of Iron Pipes. — Take oi 
coarsely powdered iron borings, 5 j)ounds; jDowdered sal 
ammoniac, 2 oz. ; sulphur, 1 oz. ; and water sufficient to 
moisten it. This composition hardens rapidly; but if time 



84 THE WOBKBHOP COMPANION. 

can be allowed it sets more firmly witlioilt the sulphur. It 
must be used as scMi as mixed and rammed tightly into the 
joints. ^ 

2. Take sal-ammv^iiitoO, 2 o^, ; sublimed sulphur, 1 Oz. ; cast- 
iron filings or fine turnings, 1 lb. Mix in a mortar and keep 
the powder dry. When it is to be used, mix it with twenty 
times its weight of clean iron turnings, or filings, and grind 
the whole in a mortar; then wet it wdth water until it becomes 
of convenient consistence, when it is to be applied to the 
joint. After a time it becomes as hard and strong as any 
part of the metal. 

Japanese Cement. — Paste made of fine rice flour. 

Kerosene Oil Lamps. — The cement commonly used for 
fastening the tops on kerosene lamps is 23laster of paris, 
which is porous and quickly penetrated by the kerosene. 
Another cement Avliich has not this defect is made with three 
parts of resin, one of caustic soda and five of w^ater. This 
composition is mixed wdth half its w^eight of plaster of paris. 
It sets firmly in about three-quarters of an hour. It is said 
to be of great adhesive power, not permeable to kerosene, a 
low conductor of heat and but sui3erficially attacked by hot 
water. 

Labels, Cement fm\ — \. Macerate 5 parts of good glue in 
18 xiarts of water. Boil and add 9 X3arts rock candy and 3 
parts gum arable. 

2. MLx dextrine with water and add a drop or two of 
glycerine. 

3 A mixture of 1 part of dry chloride of calcium, or 2 parts 
of the same salt in the a^ysialUzed form, and 36 i^arts of gum 
arable, dissolved in water to a jH-oper consistency, forms a 
mucilage which holds well, does not crack by drying, and 
yet does not attract sufficient moisture from the air to become 
wet in damp weather. 

4. For attaching labels to tin and other bright metallic 
surfaces, first rub the surface wdth a mixture of muriatic acid 
and alcohol; then apjDly the label with a very tliin coating of 
the iDaste, and it will adhere almost as well as on glass. 

5. To make cement for attaching labels to metals, take ten 
parts tragacanth mucilage, ten parts of honey, and one part 
flour. The flour ai3pears to hasten the drying, and renders 
it less susceptible to damp. Another cement that will resist 
the damj) still better, but will not adhere if the surface is 



THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 35 

greasy, is made by boiling together two parts shellac, one 
part borax, and sixteen i)aj ts water. Flour paste to which a 
certain proportion of nitric acid has been added, and heat 
applied, makes a lasting cement, but the acid often acts 
upon the metals. The acid converts the starch into dextrine. 

6. The Archives of Pliamnacy gives the following recipe for 
damp-proof mucilage for labels : Macerate five parts of good 
glue in eighteen to twenty parts of water for a day, and to 
the liquid add nine parts of rock candy and three parts of 
gum arable. The mixture can be brushed upon paper while 
lukewarm; it keeps well, does not stick together, and, when 
moistened, adheres firmly to bottles. For the labels of soda 
or seltzer-water bottles, it is well to prepare a paste of good 
rye flour and glue, to which linseed-oil, varnish, and turpen- 
tine have been added, in the proportion of half an ounce each 
to the pound. Labels prepared in the latter way do not fall 
off in damp cellars. 

Leaihef)^ and Metal,^ Cement for Uniting. — ^Wash the metal 
with hot gelatine; steep the leather in an infusion of nut 
galls (hot) and bring the two together. 

Leather Belting, Cement for. — One who has tried everything 
says that after an exj)erience of fifteen years he has found 
nothing to equal the following : Common glue and isinglass, 
equal parts, soaked for 10 hours in just enough water to 
cover them. Bring gradually to a boiKng heat and add pure 
tannin until the whole becomes ropy or appears like the 
white of eggs Buff off the surfaces to be joined, apply this 
cement warm, and clamp firmly. 

Litharge and Glycerine Cement. — A cement made of very 
finely powdered oxide of lead (litharge) and concentrated 
glycerine, unites wood to iron with remarkable efficiency. 
The comi)osition is insoluble in most acids, is unaffected by 
the action of moderate heat, sets raj)idly, and acquires an 
extraordinary hardness. 

Marine Glue. — The true mai.me glue is a combination of 
shellac and caoutchouc in proportions which vary according 
to the purposes for which the cemenjb is to be used. Some is 
very hard, others quite soft. The degree of softness is also 
regulated by the proportion of benzole used for dissolving 
the caoutchouc. Marine glue is more easily purchased than 
made, but where a small quantity is needed the following re- 
cipe is said to give very good results : Dissolve one part ol 



% THE ^VOBKSHOP GOMrAMlOX. 

India-ruLLcr in 12 paits of benzole, and to the solution add 
20 j)arts of pov/derod shellac, heating the mixture cautiously 
over the fire. Apply with a brush. 

The following recipe, taken fiom Neic Remedies, is said to 
yield a strong cement: 10 parts of caoutchouc or India-rnb- 
ber are dissolved in 120 parts of benzine or petroleum (?) 
naphtha with the aid of a gentle heat. When the solution is 
complete, which sometimes requires 10 to 14 days, 20 parts 
of asjDhalt are melted in an iron vessel, and the caoutchouc 
solution is poured in very slowly, in a fine stream, and under 
continued heating, until the mass has become homogeneous, 
and nearly all of the solvent has been driven oK It is then 
poured out and cast into greased tin moulds. It forms dark- 
brown or black cakes, which are ^ery hard to break. This 
cement requires considerable heat to melt it; and to larevent 
it from being burnt, it is best to heat a capsule containing a 
piece of it first on a water-bath, until the cake softens and 
begins to be liquid. It is then carefully wij)ed dry, and 
heated over a naked flame, under constant stirring, up to 
about 300° F. The edges of the article to be mended should, 
if possible, also be heated to at least 212° F., so as to permit 
the cement to be applied at leisure and vrith care. The 
thinner the cement is applied, the better it binds. 

Metal, Cement for attacJiiiig to Glass. — Copal varnish, 15; 
drying oil, 5; turpentine, 3. Melt in a water-bath and add 
10 parts slaked lime. 

Paris Cement for onending Shells and other. '^c^me,cs. — Gum 
arable, 5; sugar candy, 2. White lead, encragh to color. 

Paste. — The best paste is made of good flonr, well boiled. 
Besin, etc., do more harm than good. 

2. An excellent white paste may be made by elissolving 2 J 
oz. gum arable in 2 quarts hot water and thickening wdth 
wheat flour. To this is added a solution of alum and sugar 
of lead; the mixture is heated and stirred till about to boil, 
when it is allowed to cool. 

3. Four parts, by weight, of glue are allow ^-^ to soften in 
15 parts of cold water for some hours, and then moderately 
heated till the solution becomes quite clear. 65 paris of 
boiling water are now added with stirring. In another vessel 
80 parts of starch paste are stirred up with 20 parts of cold 
water, so that a thin milky fluid is obtained without lumps. 
Into this the boiling glue solution is poured, with constant 



THE WOEKSnOP COMPANION. 37 

stirring, and tlie whole is liept at the "boiling temperature. 
After cooling, 10 drops of carbolic acid are added to the 
paste. This jDaste is of extraordinary adhesive power, and 
may be used for leather, paper, or cardboard with great suc- 
cess. It must be i^reservcd in closed bottles to prevent 
evaporation of the water, and will, in this way, keep good 
for years. 

4. Rice flour makes an excellent paste for fine paper work. 

5. Gum tragacanth and water make an ever ready paste. 
A few drops of any kind of acid should be added to the water 
before putting in the gum, to prevent fermentation. This 
paste will not give that semi-transparent look to thin paper, 
that gam arabic sometimes gives, when used for mucilage. 

Fw^celain Cement. — Add plaster of paris to a strong solu- 
tion of alum till the mixture is of the consistency of cream. 
It sets readily, and is said to unite glass, metal, porcelain, 
etc. , quite firmly. It is pro bably suited for cases in which 
large rather than small surfaces are to be united. 

Soft Cement. — Melt yellow beeswax with its weight of tur- 
pentine and color with finely powdered Venetian red. When 
cold it has the hardness of soap, but is easily softened and 
moulded with the fingers, and for sticking things together 
temporarily it is invaluable. 

Soluble Glass Cements. — ^When finely-pulverized chalk is 
stirred into a solution of soluble glass of 30^ B until the 
mixture is fine and T)lastic, a cement is obtained which will 
harden in between six and eight hours, possessing an ex- 
traordinary durability, and alike applicable for domestic and 
industrial jourposes. If any of the following substances be 
employed besides chalk, differently-colored cements of the 
same general character are obtained : — 1. Finely pulverized or 
levigated stibnite (grey antimony, or black sulphide of anti- 
mony) will produce a dark cement, which, after burnishing 
with an agate, will present a metallic appearance. 2. Pulver- 
ized cast iron, a gi-ey cement. 3. Zinc dust (so-called zinc 
grey), an exceedingly hard grey cement, which, after burnish- 
ing, will exhibit the white and brilliant apj)earance of metallic 
zinc. This cement may be employed with advanta,ge in 
mending ornaments and vessels of zinc, sticking alike well to 
metals, stone, and wood. 4. Carbonate of copper, a bright 
green cement. 5. Sesquioxide of chromium, a dark green 
cement. 6. Thenard's blue (cobalt blue), a blue cement. 



38 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

7. Minium, an orange-colored cement. 8. Vermilion, 
splendid red cement. 9. Carmine red, a violet cement. 

So'reFs Cement — Mix commercial zinc white with | its bulk 
of fine sand, adding a solntion of chloride of zinc of 1*26 
sj)ecific gravity, and rub the whole thoroughly together in a 
mortar. The mixture must be applied at once, as it hardens 
very quickly. 

Steam Boile?' Cement. — Mix two parts of finely powdered 
litharge w4th one part of very fine sand, and one part of 
quicklime which has been allowed to slack spontaneously 
by exposure to the air. This mixture may be kej^t for any 
length of time without injuring. In using it a j)ortion is 
mixed into paste with linseed oil, or, still better, boiled lin- 
seed oil. In this state it must be quickly aiDplied, as it soon 
becomes hard. 

Transparent Cement for Glass. — Fine Canada balsam. 

Turner's Cement. — Melt 1 lb. of resin in a jDan over the fire, 
and, when melted, add a i of a lb. of pitch. While these 
are boiling add brick dust until, by dropping a little on a 
cold stone, you think it hard enough. In vfinter it may be 
necessary to add a little tallov/. By means of this cement a 
piece of wood may be fastened to the chuck, which will hold 
when cool; and when the work is finished it may be removed 
by a smart stroke vvith the tool. Any tra,ces of the cement 
may be removed from the work by means of benzine. 

WoUaston' s Wldte Cement for large objects. — Beeswax, 1 oz. ; 
resin, 4 oz. ; powTlered j^laster of paris, 5 oz. Melt together. 
To use, warm the edges of the specimen and use the ceme^it 
warm. 

Copper. 

Co23per is probably the most difficult of all the metals to 
w^ork by the file or lathe, but pure coi^per may be cut like 
cheese wdth a graver, and consequently it is extensively used 
for plates where the number of impressions required is not 
very large. In filing copper the file should be well chalked, 
and in cutting it in the lathe use plenty of soajDy water, and 
let the solution of soap be pretty strong. In polishing copper 
it will be found that owing to its softness, it burnishes easily 
(see article on polisidng metals), but where it is polished by 
means of abrasive processes, that is, by the use of powders 
which grind it or wear it down, great care must be taken to 



THE WOBKSHOt> COMPANIOK. S9 

have the powders free from particles which are larger than 
the average, as these would be sure to scratch the metal, 
owing to its softness. For polishing copper by abrasion, 
only the softer polishing powders should be used, such as 
rotten stone, j^repared chalk, rnd soft rouge. These are used 
with oil at first, but the last touches are given dry. 

Copper may be welded by the use of proper fluxes. The 
best compound for this ]3urpose is a mixture of one pa.rt of 
phosphate of soda and two parts of boraoic acid. This vveld- 
ing powder should be strewn on the surface of the copper at 
a red heat; the jDieces should then be heated up to a full 
cherry red, or yellow heat, and brought immediately under 
the hammer, when they may be as readily welded as iron 
itself. Eor instance, it is possible to weld together a small 
rod of coi3per which has been broken; the ends should be 
beveled, laid on one another, seized by a pair of tongs, and 
placed together with the latter in the fire and heated; the 
welding powder should then be strewn on the ends, which, 
after a further heating, may be welded so soundly as to bend 
and stretch as if they had never been broken. It is necessary 
to carefully observe two things in the course of the oj^eration. 
First, the greatest care must be taken that no charcoal or 
other solid carbon comes into contact with the points to be 
welded, as otherwise phosphide of copper would be formed, 
which would cover the surface of the copper and effectually 
prevent a weld. In this case it is only by careful treatment 
in an oxidizing fire and a plentiful application of the welding 
powder that the copper can again be welded. It is, there- 
fore, advisable to heat the copper in a flame, as, for instance, 
a gas flame. Second, as copper is a much softer metal than 
iron, it is much softer at the required heat than the latter at 
its welding heat, and the parts v/elded can not offer any great 
resistance to the blows of the hammer. They must, there- 
fore, be so shaped as to be enabled to resist such blows as 
well as may be, and it is also well to use a wooden hammer, 
which does not exercise so great a force on account of its 
lightness. Mr. Bust, the inventor of this process, states that, 
as long ago as 1854, he welded strips of copper plates to- 
gether and drew them into a rod; he also made a chain, the 
links of which had been made of pretty thick wire and 
welded. 

Coppering Iron or Steel. — The following process is said to 



40 THEWOEKSHOi ^JMPANION. 

give very good results : First make tlio ai-ticle entirely bright 
by tile, scratcli brlisli, or any of the usual modes. Apply to 
the surface a coating of cream of tartar, then S23rinlvle the 
surface with a saturated solution of suli^hate of copjoer, and 
rub with a hard brush. The coating of copper deposited on 
the iron is said to be very even and durable. 

Coral, Artificial. 

Twigs, raisin stalks, and any objects having the. general 
outline of branched coral, may be made to resemble that 
material by being dipi3ed in a mixture of 4 parts resin, 3 
parts beeswax and 2 parts vermillion, melted together and 
thoroughly mixed. The effect is very pretty, and for orna- 
mental work such imitation coral is very useful. 

Cork. 

Corks are so important in many operations, that a little 
knowledge of the best methods of working them is indisj)en- 
sable. They form the best material for a holder for sand- 
paper in rubbing down flat surfaces, and they afford the 
simplest and most effectual mea,ns of closing bottles in many 
cases. Cork is easily cut by means of a thin, sharp knife, 
which should not have a smooth edge, however, but one set 
on a dry stone, moderately fine. After having been cut to 
nearly the right form, corks are easily worked to the proper 
size and shape by means of files. Holes are easily made 
through corks by means of tin or brass tubes, w^hich must be 
thin and Avell sharpened on the edge by mea-ns of a file. The 
sharp edge being slightly oiled, is pressed against the cork 
and at the same time turned round, when it quickly cuts a 
smooth straight hole through the material. 

"Wlien it is desired to make corks air-tight and water-tight, 
the best method is to allov>^ them to remain for about five 
minutes beneath the surface of melted paraffine in a suitable 
vessel, the corks being held down either by a perforated lid, 
wire screen, or similar device. Corks thus j^re^^ared can be 
easily cut and bored, have a perfectly smooth exterior, may 
be introduced and removed from the neck of a flask vvdth 
ease, and make a perfect seal. 

Crayons for Black-Boards. 

Spanish white, which is simply very fine chalk, is mixed 
"with water and just enough flour paste to cause the particles 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 41 

to adhere when dry. If too much paste is used, the crayons 
will be too hard and will not mark well; if too soft, they will 
crumble. The i^roper proportions should be found by ex- 
periment, as different qualities of flour possess different 
adhesive properties. The wet chalk may be formed into 
lu'oper shape by means of pai^er moulds, or it may be rolied- 
out to the required shape and cut into suitable lengths. 

For making drawings of objects of natural history, etc., it 
is frequenely desirable to use colored crayons, the most use- 
ful colors being green, red and yellow. A little cheap, dry 
paint mixed with the chalk will give the desired tints. 

Crayons which are not too hard to make a good clear mark, 
are very apt to be brittle and unable to stand any pressure 
on the point when they are of sufficient length to be handled 
easily. If the crayons are made true cylinders, they may be 
covered with paper, which will serve the same purpose as the 
wood in the common lead pencil, and may be cut av/ay as 
wanted. The common crayons, being conical, are not so 
easily covered, but may, nevertheless, be wrapped with a 
long, narrow slip of paper so as to be strong and durable. 

Curling. 

A method of finishing such metals as brass, German silver, 
etc. , which if well done, gives a very handsome appearance 
to the work. The w^ork must first be carefully finished so as 
to have no scratches, as these would show through the curl- 
ing and destroy the effect. After the metal has been finished 
with fine files, emery paj^er, Water-of-Ayr stone, and finally 
the finest rotten stone ax3plied by means of a buff, the curling 
is i^roduced by means of a stick of charcoal moved in circular 
sweeps over the surface, vv liich should be kept well moistened 
with water. After the desired effect has been produced, the 
metal is lacquered. 

We have seen ** curling" applied to surfaces of considera- 
ble extent, but in such cases the effect never seemed to us as 
good as in the case of very small articles. If the sweeps are 
large they give a coarse appearance to the work, while a 
large surface covered with small sweeps has a confused 
appearance. 

Cuticle, Liquid. 

Collodion, or gun cotton dissolved in sulphuric ether, has 
ao equal as a covering for i)rotecting burns, cuts or wounds, 



42 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

from the air. It soon dries, and forms a skin-like protection 
that adheres with great tenacity. 

Etching. 

Etching is the art of cutting lines in any material by means 
of some corrosive agent. Thus, since nitric acid dissolves 
copper, if we confine the action of the acid to certain lines, 
w^e can cut grooves of considerable depth in the copper, and 
these grooves may be used either as lines from wdiich we may 
print, or as marks similar to writing. Iron, brass, steel, 
silver, ivory, glass, marble, and many other materials may be 
cut in the same way, by the action of suitable acids. As a 
simi)le and easily learned method of forming engraved plates 
from which to j)rint, the art of etching is one of the most 
eligible for young persons. The materials required are few 
and simple, great freedom of outline may be secured, and the 
results are very j^leasing. 

Copper is the metal usually employed for etching draw- 
ings. It is furnished by the dealers in plates perfectly smooth 
and fiat, and of any desired size. The surface- is first coated 
with a wax or varnish, for wdiich there are many recipes, the 
following being probably the best: Take of beesw^ax and 
asphalt, 2 parts each; Burgundy pitch and black pitch, 1 
part each. Melt the w ax and the pitch in an eai-then vessel 
and add the asphalt by degrees in fine powder. Expose to 
heat until a drop w^hich has been cooled, breaks by bending 
back and forth two or three times in the fingers. 

A second, which is simiDier and said to be very good, is com- 
posed of asi^halt, 2 oz. ; Burgundy pitch, 1 oz. ; l3eeswax, 1^ oz. 

A transparent varnish may be comi)osed of resin, 1 oz. ; 
"beeswax, 2 oz. Melt together. 

The plate having been polished and burnished, is grasped 
by one corner in a hand-vice and warmed OA^er a spirit lamp 
until it will melt the varnish or etching ground, which is 
then spread over its surface very thinly by means of a ball or 
pledget of cotton tied in a piece of silk. Before the ground 
has quite cooled and solidified, it is blackened by the smoke 
of a lamp or candle. The blackening is necessary so that ^he 
design may be clearly seen as it is drawn in. 

The design may be either drawn directly on the plate, or 
transferred by means of transfer paper. Or it may be first 
dravvn on the etching ground by means of a very finely 



THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 43 

pointed camel-hair pencil, using, of course, a wliito color dis- 
solved in some medium wliicli will adhere to the ground. 
^.Vater is useless. Turpentine answers very well. 

In whatever way the design is drawn on the surface of the 
ground, it must next be cub in by moans of a steel point, 
good serving needles making excellent o:iey, and diiferent 
sizes being used according to the strength of the lines required. 
The lines ha^dng been traced through the varnish so as to 
expose a bright coj)per surface, the next step is to make a 
border of wax around the plate so thixt the acid wdll not run 
off. The wax used for making the border is a mixture of 
beeswax, resin and tallow, of such a consistency that it will 
be easily moulded by the fingers. The border should be 
nearly half an inch high, thus converting the jDlate into a 
shallow dish. This dish is half lilled with a mixture of one 
part of nitric acid and three i^arts of water. After this plate 
has been exposed for a fev/ minutes to this liquid, the acid is 
poured off, the x^late washed with pure water and allowed to 
dry. All the very delicate lines are then "stopx3ed" out, as 
it is called, by being coated by means of a camel-hair pencil 
with varnish dissolved in turi^entine. When this has dried, 
the acid is poured back again and allowed to act on the coarser 
lines, and the more frequently this process is introduced, the 
more perfect will be the ultimate result. 

When the lines have all been etched to the required depth, 
the varnish is removed by warming the plate and washing 
with turpentine. A cojoper-plate press is used to take off the 
impressions. 

The process of etching is very simple, and the results very 
satisfactory. As an artistic recreation, it is capable of afford- 
ing a great deal of i^leasure. 

The art of cutting names, etc. , on steel tools and other ob- 
jects, is very simj^le and useful. The following give" ^ood 
results : 

Etching Liquid for Steel. — Mix 1 oz. sulphate of copper, i 
oz. of alum, and \ a teaspoonful of salt reduced to powder, 
with 1 gill of vinegar and 20 droj)s of nitric acid. This liquid 
may be used either for eating deeply into the metal or for 
imparting a beautiful frosted appearance to the surface, 
according to the time it is allowed to act. Cover the parts 
you wish to protect from its influence with beeswax, tallow, 
or some similar substance. 



M THE WORKSHOP COMPAISIOK. 

Eicliivg on Glass. — Fancy work, ornamental figures, letor- 
ing and monograms, are most easily and neatly cut into glass 
by the sand blast x^roeess, a simple ajii-^^i'^^^^^^ ^^i' ^vliicli will 
be fonnd described in the Young Scieniist. Lines and iigures 
on tnbes, jars, etc., may be deei:>ly etched by smearing the 
surface of the glass with beeswax, drawing the lines with a 
steel j)oint, and exposing the glass to the fumes of hydro- 
fluoric acid. This acid is obtained by j^utting powdered 
fluorspar into a tray made of sheet lead and pouring suli3huric 
acid on it, after which the tray is slightly warmed. 

The proportions will, of course, vary with the jDurity of 
the materials used, fluorspar (except when in crystals) being 
generally mixed with a large quantity of other matter, but this 
point need not affect the success of the operation. Enough 
acid to make a thin paste with the powdered sjDar will be 
about right. Where a lead tray is not at hand, the powdered 
spar may be poured on the glass, and the acid poured on it 
and left for some time. As a general rule, the marks are 
opaque, but sometimes they are transparent. In this case, 
cut them deeply and fill up with black yarnish, if they are 
required to be very plain, as in the case of graduated vessels. 

Liquid hydrofluoric acid has been recommended for 
etching, but as it leaves the surface on which it acts trans- 
parent, it is not suitable. 

The agent which corrodes the glass is a gas which does 
not remain in the mixture of fluorspar and sulphuric acid, 
but passes off in the vapor. To mix fluorspar and sulphuric 
acid and keep it in leaden bottles under the idea that the 
mixture is hydrofluoric add, is a • gross mistake. Sucji an 
idea could enter into the head of none but the comiDiler of a 
cyclopaedia of recipes. 

Eye, Accidents to. 

Those who are engaged in mechanical operations run great 
risk of accidents to the eye, and therefore a few hints in re- 
gard to this subject may be valuable to our readers. 

Minute particles of dust, sand, cinders, small flies, etc., 
are best removed by means of a camel-hair brush or pencil, 
moistened but not wet, and drawn to a fme point. The brush 
will absorb the moisture of the eye and with it will take up 
the mote, provided the latter has not been driven into the 
eyeball. Where a brush is not at hand, a thin strip of soft 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 45 

paper, rolled sijirally so as to form a fine point, is the best 
tiling. 

1'lie ragged cliips and splinters which are separated during 
the j)rocesses of turning and chipping off, often find their 
way into the eve, and are sometimes very difficult to remove. 
The use of magnets has been recommended, but even the 
strongest magnet is entirely inefficient, if the siDlinters be 
imbedded. In such a case, if the operator be gifted with a 
steady hand and firm nerves, the best instrument for remov- 
ing the offending particle is a good, sharj) pen-knife. Indeed, 
we prefer it in every case as being far superior to softer 
articles. In simple cases let the patient stand up with his 
head firmly held against a door-post; turn back the eyelids 
with the fingers; find the speck, and by passing the knife 
gently but firmly over the ball, you may sweej3 it up. Where 
the sj)linter is actually imbedded in the eye, lay the patient on 
his back on a table; turn the eyelids back, and fix them by 
means of a ring, and then you v/ill find yourself free to 
ojDerate without danger of interference from the i:>atient's 
winking. A suitable ring may be found in most bunches of 
keys, or any mechanic can make one in two minutes out of a 
piece of stiff iron wire. Iron splinters always Imve ragged 
edges, and can be caught on the fine, sharj) edge of a knife 
and lifted out. But although we recommend the use of a 
sharp knife, it must be remembered that no cutting of the 
eyeball is to be permitted in any case, excei)t by an ex- 
perienced occulist. 

Where the person who is operating is at all nervous or 
timid, it will not do to u^e a knife. In this case, take some 
soft, white silk waste and wind it round a splinter of wood 
so as to completely cover the end and form a little brush of 
looped threads. Tie it fast. When such a brush is swej^t 
over that part of the eyeball w^here the offending substance 
is imbedded, the latter will soon be entangled in the threads 
and may be easily drawn out. 

In ail such cases a good magnifier will be found of great 
assistance. The best form is perhaps a good watchmaker's 
glass. 

When corrosive chemicals, such as oil of vitriol, nitric acid, 
:;orrosive salts, etc., find their v/ay into the eye, the best 
application is abundance of pure cold water. The eye should 
be hdd open and well washed out. When any iiTitating sub* 



4G THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 

stance gets into the eye, the lid is a,pt to close spasmodically, 
and if allowed to remain so, no v.atcr can get in. 

In the case of lime, however, the action of water would 
only increase the diiiicnlty. A little vinegar and water forma 
the best wash for lime, jjotash, sod.a, or ammonia. 

Fires. 

Most of the fires that occur might be avoided by proper 
care, and tlie^ following hints, if carefully observed, will aid 
materially in avoiding such accidents : . 

1. Never leave matches where they can be reached by 
children, and if one should fall on the :floor, be careful and 
search for it until you find it. A match, when trodden on, 
readily ignites, and if unobserved ma^y cause a serious fire, or 
what is more likely, set a lady's dress in flames. Eats and 
mice have a great fondness for matches, and often carry them 
oti'to their holes, wdiere, by nibbling, they set them on fire. 
Advv ays keep matches in tin boxes, and never in paper pack- 
ages.'' 

2. Children should be strictly prevented from pla^dng v/itli 
fire, and severely punished if caught so offending. It is far 

Joetter that they should undergo the inconvenience of a little 
wholesome chastisement than either set the house on fire, 
disfigure themselves for life, or be burnt to death, from the 
want of being severely punished for disobedience. 

3. Never leave a lamp or candle burning at your l)edside 
on a table when you go to bed, and avoid reading in bed; 
this is a most fruitful cause of loss of life and x^roperty. 

4. If a j)iece of paper is used to light a lamp, see that it is 
properly extinguished before leaving it, as it wiE sometimes 
burst out on fire after it is suj)i30sed to liave been comj^letely 
extinguished. 

5. If there be an escape of gas, so that the smell of it is 
very apparent, open the door and w^indows immediately to 
alloAV its escape, and facilitate the entrance of fresh air; and 
above all things avoid coming any w ay near with a light of 
any description. As soon as you can, shut off the gas at the 
meter. 

6. Be careful about stove-pipes passing through lath pai- 
titions; about kindling wood left in the oven over night to 
dry, and about the ash-box. Never keej) ashes in a wooden 
vessel under any circumstances vdiatever, and never go to 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 47 

bed at niglit without seeing that every possible cause for an 
accidental lire has been removed. Allow no linen or cotton 
cloches to hang near a stove over night for the purj^ose of 
drying them. 

7. There never yet was a fire which a single pail of water, 
if apjjlied in time, would rot have quenched, therefore never 
go to bed without ha^dng a few i^ails of water at hand, and a 
dipper with which to throw it on the iire. Water can never 
be so well aj^plied if thrown fi'om the pail itself. Spontaneous 
combustion is no imaginary danger, therefore never leave 
heaps of oiled rags and similar rubbish lying around. 

As most of us are liable to be caught in a burning build- 
ing, it would be well for us to imi^ress the follovring hints 
upon the mind, as they may stand us in good stead if a lii'e 
should occur: 

1. Every householder should make each person in his 
house acquainted with the best means of escape^ vrhether the 
fire breaks out at the top or at the bottom. In securing the 
street door and lower vrindows for the night, avoid comi^li- 
catod fastenings or impediments to an immediate outlet in 
case of fire. 

2. Inmates, at the first alarm, should endeavor to refiect 
what means of escape there are in the house; if in bed at the 
time, wraj) themselves in a blanket or bedside carx)et; oj^en 
neither windows nor doors more than necessary; shut every 
door after them. This is most imj^ortant to observe. 

3. In the midst of smoke it is comparatively clear toward 
the ground, consequently progress through the smoke can 
be made on the hands and knees. A silk handkerchief, 
worsted stockings, or other fiannel substance wetted and 
drawn over the face, permits free breathing, and excludes, to 
a gTeat extent, the smoke from the lungs. A wet sponge is 
alike efficacious. 

4. In the event of being unable to escape, either ' «y vhe 
street door or roof, the jDersons in danger should immediately 
make their w^ay to a front room window, taking care to close 
the door after them, and those who have charge of the house- 
hold should ascertain that every indi^ddual is there assembled. 

5. Persons thus circumsta,nced should never precipitate 
themselves from the windows while there remains the least 
probability of assistance; and even in the last extremity a 
plain rope is invaluable, or recourse may be had to joining 



48 THE WOEKSIIOP COMPANION;!. 

sheets or blankets together, fastening one end round the bed- 
post or other furniture. This will enable one person to 
ioAver all the others sej)arately, and the last may let himself 
down with comparatively little risk. Select a w^indow over 
the doorway rather than over the area. 

Clothes wt Fire. — So many accidents are daily occurring 
from broken kerosene lamps, and clothes taking fire frojn 
gas lights and open fire-places, that it is very imj)ortant to 
know what to do under such circumstances. Three persons 
out of four would rush right up to the burning individual, 
and begin to i)aAV with their hands without any aim. It is 
useless to tell the victim to do this or that, or call for water. 
In fact it is generally best not to say a vrord, but seize a 
blanket from a bed, or 2> cloak, or any woolen fabric — if none 
is at hand, take any heavy material — hold the corners as far 
apart as you can, stretch them higher than your head, and 
running boldly to the person, make a motion of clasping in 
the arms, just about the shoulders. This instantly smothers 
the fire and saves the face. The next instant throw the un- 
fortunate person on the fioor. This is an additional safety 
tO the face and breath, and any remnant of flame can be put 
out more leisurely. When the person w^hose clothes take fire 
is alone, the danger is not unfrequently increased by the 
sufferer jTunning about in a state of alarm; whereas it would 
be better for him to roll on the floor until the fire is extin- 
guished, or better still, to cover himself with a loose carpet, 
rug, or blanket, to exclude the air, till a sufficient supply of 
water is obtained to throw over him. In either case, after the 
fire has been put out, the individual should be placed on a 
bed, and the clothes removed piecemeal by cutting them off; 
much caution is requii-ed in taking away the body linen 
without tearing off the skin, and where the linen sticks, so 
much only should be cut off as can be detached readily. 

Fire Proof Dresses, — Some years ago Queen Victoria ap- 
pointed a commission to investigate this subject. It was 
found that there were but four salts which were applicable 
to light fabrics: 1, Phosphate of ammonia; 2, a mixture of 
phosphate of ammonia and chloride of ammonia; 3, sulphate 
of ammonia; 4, tungstate of soda. Of these, the best w^as 
tungstate of soda, a salt which is not by any means expensive. 
Sulphate of ammonia is objectionable, from the fact that it 
acts on the irons and moulds the fabric. The tungstate of 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 49 

soda IS nMtiier injurious to the texture or color, or in any 

degree difficult of api)lication in the washing process. The 
iron i^asses over the material quite as smoothly as if no solu- 
tion had been employed. The solution increases the stiffness 
of the fabric, and its protecting power against fire is perfect. 
Tills salt offers only one difficulty, viz: the formation of a 
bitungstate, of little solubility, which crystallizes from the 
solution; but it was found that a very small percentage of 
phosphate of soda rendered the tungstate quite stable. The 
best method of applying these salts is to take one ounce of 
tungstate of soda and a quarter of an ounce of phosphate of 
soda, and dissolve them in a quart of water. The goods are 
moistened with this solution before being starched, and they 
may be afterwards ironed and finished without the least 
difficulty. 

Articles prepared in this way are perfectly uninflammable. 
They may be charred by exposure to fire, but they do not 
bura readily unless there is some extraneous source of heat, 
and they can not be made to burst into flame. By the aid ox 
this discovery, a lady dressed in the lightest muslin might 
walk over a row of footlights, and the only result would be 
that the lower part of her dress v\^ould be injured. Unless 
her person actually came in contact with the gas flames, she 
herself would suffer no injury. In country places, where 
tungstate of soda cannot be procured, a mixture of three 
parts borax, and two and a half parts sulphate of magnesia, 
in twenty parts of vf ater, may be used with good effect. 

Fly-Papers. 

sticky or adhesive fly-papers are to be discouraged, as 
it is a cruelty to subject even flies to the long struggles and 
slow death caused by it. Such papers, however, are occa- 
sionally sold, and are i)repared by coating paper with fac- 
titious bird-lime. Or the l3ird-lime is smeared u^Don wooden 
sticks standing in a base, for instance, a flower-pot, when 
they will adhere to it. A better plan is to mix some poison 
with the adhesive mass, but care should be taken lest chil- 
dren get at it. Cooley gives the following formula: Treacle, 
honey, or moist sugar mixed with about l-12th of their 
weight of orpiment (yellow tersulphide of arsenic) . Redwood's 
formula is: Small quassia chips, i oz. ; water, 1 pint; boil 10 
minutes, strain, and add 4 oz. of treacle. Flies will drink 
this with avidity, and are soon destroyed bj it. 



m THE WOUKSHOP COMPANION. 

Freezing Mixtures. 

Tlie temperatures here given are Fahrenheit. When ice oif 
snow are not to be had and it is desired to cool any solid, 
liquid or gas, a good freezing mixture is the simplest method 
of a-'coniplisliing the object. The following mixtures are the 
most convenient and efficient: 

1. Nitrate of ammonia, carbonate of soda and water, equal 
parts by weight. The thermometer sinks 57^. 

2. Phosphate of soda, 9 parts; nitrate of ammonia, 6 parts; 
diluted nitric acid, (acid 1 part, water 2 i)arts,) 4 parts. 
Keduces the temperature 71° or from 50° to — 21°. 

8. Sal ammoniac, 5 parts; nitrate of potash, 5 parts; sul- 
phate of soda, 8 parts; water, 16 parts. Beduces the tem- 
perature 46° or from 70° to 24°. This is one of the clieai)est, 
most readily procured, and most convenient of mixtures. 

Freezing mixtures are often used Avlien it is required to 
produce a greater degree of cold than can be obtained by 
the mere application of ice. When ice is at hand, as it gen- 
erally is in this country, the following should be used: 

i. Finely ]30unded ice, 2 parts; salt, 1 part. This mixture 
reduces the temperature to 5°. 

2. Finely pounded ice, 2 parts; crystallized chloride of 
calcium, 3 i^arts. Beduces the temj)erature from 32° to — 40°. 

3. Finely j)ounded ice, 7 parts ; diluted nitric acid, 4 jDarts. 
Beduces the temperature from 32° to — 30°. 

In every case the materials should be kept as cool as pos- 
sible. Thus the ice should be jDounded in a cooled mortar 
with a cooled pestle, and the mixture should be made in ves- 
sels previously cooled. By attention to these particulars it 
is easy to freeze mercury at any time by means of these 
sim23le and easily practiced methods, though, of course, the 
modern laboratory is provided with agencies of far greater 
cooling power. 

Fumigating Pastils. 

For the purpose of deodorizing a room in which there is 
an olTensive smell, common coffee berries, and even rags or 
brov/n paper, if properly burned, will serve admirably. The 
smoke from these substances not only neutralizes the odors, 
but really acts as a disinfectant to a slight extent. In burn- 
ing coffee, paper or rags for this jiurj^ose, care must be taken 
to prevent them from burning too freely. If they burn witi 



THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 5l 

a free, bright flame, tlie proper effect will not be produced. 
They should be allowed to smoulder quietly, and they do 
this best Avhen they are thrown on hot coals, or a hot shovel 
and set on fire. 

An excellent substitute for jjastils is he^xj brown paper, 
w^hicli has been dipped in a solution of nitre and then dried. 
This burns treely without flame, and if it be dipped in a 
solution of benzoin, the odor is very pleasant. ^ The best 
thing, however, is i)astils. They are easily made as follows : 

1. Paris Formula. — Benzoin, 2 oz. ; balsam of tolu and 
yellow sandal wood, of each 4 drachms; nitre, 2 drachms; 
labdanum, 1 drachm; charcoal, 6 oz. Reduce to powder, mix 
thoroughly and make into a stiff paste with gum tragacanth. 
Form into small cones and dry them in the air. 

2. Formula of Henry and Guibourt. — Powdered benzoia, IG 
parts; balsam of tolu and iDowdered sandalwood, each 4 
parts; charcoal powder, 48 parts; powdered tragacanth and 
labdanum, each 1 part; powxlered nitre and gum arable, each 
2 parts; make into a paste v/ith 12 j)arts cinnamon water, form 
into cones and dry. 

3. The following formula is somewhat complex, but gives 
very fine results: Take the charcoal of any light Avood, 200 
parts; gum benzoin, 100 parts; powdered sandal wood, 50 
parts; balsam of tolu, 50 parts; Storax (Styrax calamita), 50 
parts; gum olibanum, 50 parts; cascarilla bark, 100 i3arts; 
cloves, 40 parts; cinnamon (Ceylon), 40 parts; potassium 
nitrate, 75 parts. Eeduce the ingTedients to powder, and 
mix them with oil of Ceylon cinnamon, 5 parts; oil of cloves, 
5 parts; oil of lavender, 5 parts; balsam of Peru, 10 parts; 
camphor, powdered, 1 part. Then add mucilage of traga- 
canth sufficient to make a mass which is to be formed into 
conical cylinders about | to 1 inch high, and ending at the 
bottom in three j)rojections. Dry them in a warm T)lace. 

Gilding. 

A covering of gold, when judiciously applied to the proper 
parts ot any object adds greatl}^ to its l3eauty, and in the case 
of metals, such as steel, copper, silver, etc. , the gold, being- 
capable of resisting the action of most chemical agents, proves 
a very perfect protector against corrosion. Metals are now 
generally gilt by means of the electrotype process, though 
the old method by means of an amalgam, is still used in some 



g^ THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 

cases. Stamped goods, snch as cheap jewelry, are also 
made out of sheets of metal which, after being heavily gilt, are 
rolled out thin, the gold being thus sj^read over an astonish- 
ing extent of surface. For gilding leather, wood, etc., gold 
in the form of leaf or powder is generally used. 

Gilding with Gold- Leaf. — There are various methods appli- 
cable, according to the different circumstances and the 
character of the objects to be gilded. Book-binders use gold- 
leaf in two ways — to gild on the edge, and to place gold let- 
ters on the binding. To gild on the edge, the eiigQ is smoothly 
cut, put in a strong press, scraped so as to make it solid, and 
the well- beaten white of an egg or albumen put on thinly; 
the gold-leaf is then put on before the albumen is dry ; it is 
pressed down with cotton, and when dry polished with an 
agate polisher. To put on the lettering, the place where the 
letters are to appear is coated with albumen, and after it is 
dry, the type to be used is heated to about the boiling point 
of water, the gold-leaf put on, either on the book or on the 
type, and then placed on the spot where the lettering is 
desired, when the gold-leaf will adhere by the heat of the 
type, while the excess of gold-leaf loosely around is rubbed 
off with a tuft of cotton. 

To do printing with gold-leaf, the sheet to be printed on is 
pinned to the tympan of a ' hand-press, 8.nd it is first printed 
with ink of any color, or v/itli varnish, and then the ij'pe is 
covered with a large sheet of paper, the gold-leaf laid on, 
and the tympan laid down again, slowly o.nd carefully, so as 
not to disturb the gold-leaf by motions of the air; then the 
pressure is again applied, when the gold-leaf will stick to 
the printed sheet, and the surplus can be rubbed off with a 
tuft of cotton. Ordinary printing in gold, silver and bronze, 
however, is done with powdered metal and not with leaf. 
The printing is lirst done with a varnish specially made for 
the purpose; after the impression has been taken, the sheets 
are allowed to lie a short time so as to dry a little, but not 
completely, and while still tacky the gold, silver or bronze 
powder is sprinkled over the letters. The powder adheres 
to the varnish, and the surplus is easily removed by means 
of a tuft of cotton. 

In gilding picture-frames with gold-leaf there are two 
methods; one Avith the ordinary gold size, the other with 
varnish. The latter method does not allow polishing, but is 



THE WOIiySHOP COMPANIOM. 53 

water-proof; the former is not. Tlie main point is to have a 
well iDrepared gronnd-work of say white lead and drying oil, 
smoothed down properly; then follow several coats of cal- 
cined w^hite lead in linseed oil anct turpentine, with intervals 
of at least twenty- four hours between each coat, which must 
be carefully smoothed off with pumice-stone and fine emery- 
pn;per. Then the gold size is applied, which may be made from 
the sediment that collects at the bottom of the pot in which 
painters wash their brushes; this is thoroughly ground and 
strained. "Wlien the gold size coat is sufficiently dry so as to be 
a little sticky, apply the gold-leaf and press it on with cotton 
or a soft brush; a.fter a few days' hardening it is varnished 
with spirits or oil varnish. This gives a water-proof gild- 
ing, but ordinarily picture-fi'ames are gilded with a gold size 
containing no oil. It is made of finely ground sal ammoniac, 
to which is added a very little beef suet; this is mixed with 
a pallet-knife, with parchment size dissolved in water, so as 
to fiow from the knife when hot. The frame may be pre- 
XDared first wdth a fev/ coats of Paris white and glue-water, 
rubbed down smoothly, and finally aT)ply the size, which 
must not be too thick, as then it will chip off, and if too thin 
it will not have sufficient body. The most difficult part in 
all these operations of gold-leaf gilding, is the application of 
the gold-leaf, which requires much practice, judgment, and 
great care, but with some attention to little details it can be 
easily learned. There ought to be no draught at the place 
of operation and the operator ought to avoid allowing his 
breath to blow upon the gold leaves, as they are so thin and 
light that the least breath of air causes them to fly about — 
worse than feathers. Turn the gold leaves — one at a time — 
out of the book upon the leather cushion; with the gilding- 
knife you may lift any leaf and carry it to a convenient place 
to cut it into the sizes required. Blow gently on the center 
of the leaf, and it will at once spread out and lie flat without 
any wrinkles, tiien cut it by j)assing the edge of the knife 
over it until divided. Place the w^ork to be gilded as near as 
practicable in a horizontal position, and with a long camels '- 
hair pencil, dipped in a mixture of water with a little brandy, 
go over as much surface as the piece of gold is to cover; then 
take up the gold from the cushion with a tip. Drawing it 
over the forehead and cheek will dampen it sufficiently to 
make the gold adhere. This must then be carefully trans- 



54 THE ^VOBKSHOP COMPANION. 

ferred to its place on tlie vrork, and by gently breathing on 
it, it will adhere. Take care that the part to which it is 
applied be sufficiently wet, so that the gold-leaf will not 
crack. Proceed in this way, a little at a time, not attempt- 
ing to cover too much at once. If any cracks or flaws 
appear, immediately applj' another piece of gold-leaf over 
it — large enough to cover the crack. If occasionally the gold 
does not appear to adhere, on account of the ground having 
become too dry, run a wet pencil close to the edge of the 
gold, so as to allow w^ater to penetrate under the gold-leaf. 
When the work is dry (say in ten or twelve hours), it may be 
burnished wdth an agate tool, taking care to firet remove all 
the dust from the tool as well as from the gilded surface. 

Ornamental lines of gilding may be painted on wood and 
other articles by means of .a fine camel-hair brush, using 
shell gold, which may be had at the artists' supply stores. 
This forms a very good method of ornamenting work done 
by the scroll sav/, or carved work, such as frames, etc. 

Gilding Steel.. — Polished steel may be beautifully gilded by 
means of the ethereal solution of gold. Dissolve pure gold 
in aqua regia, evaporate gently to dryness, so as to drive ofi 
the superfluous acid, re-dissolve in water and add three times 
its bulk of sulphuric ether. Allow to stand for twenty-fout 
hours in a sto^Dpered bottle and the ethereal solution of 
gold will float at top. Polished steel dijjped in this is at 
once beautifully gilded, and by tracing patterns on the sur- 
face of the metal v^ith any kind of varnish, beautiful devices 
in plain metal and gilt will be produced. Por other metals 
the electro process is the best. 

Glass Working. 

Glass is usually brought into shape by being moulded or 
blown. Simple and complete directions for blowing small 
articles may be found in the Young Scientist, vol. I, p. 37. 

There are a few other operations, however, which are con 
stantly needed by the amateur and v/hich we will describe. 

Cutting Glass. — For cutting flat glass, such as window- 
panes, and for cutting rounds or ovals out of flat glass, the 
diamond is the best tool; and, if the oi3erator has no diamond 
it will always iDay to carry the job to a glazier rather than 
waste time and make a j)oor job by other and inferior means. 
When, however; it is required to cut off a very little from a 



THE ^OEKSHOJ? COMPANION. 65 

circle or oval, the diamond is not available, except in ver« 
skilful hands. In this case a pair of jDliers softened by heat- 
ing, or very dull scissors is the best tool, and the cutting i? 
best i)erformed under water. A little practice will enable 
the operator to shaj^e a small round or oval with great 
rapidity, ease and precision. When bottles or flasks are to 
be cut, the diamond is still the best tool in skilful hands; 
but ordinary operators will succeed best with pastils, or a 
red hot poker with a pointed end. We prefer the latter, as 
being the most easily obtained and the most efficient; and we 
have never found any difficulty in cutting off broken flasks 
so as to make dishes, or to carry a cut spirally round a long 
bottle so as to cut it into the form of a corkscrew. And, by 
the way, when so cut, glass exhibits considerable elasticity, 
and the spiral may be elongated like a ringlet. The process 
is very simple. The line of the cut should be marked by 
chalk or by pasting a thin strip of i^aper alongside of it; 
then make a file mark to commence the cut; apply the hot 
iron and a crack will start; and this crack vfill follow the 
iron wherever we choose to lead it. In this way jars arc 
easily made out of old bottles, and broken vessels of different 
kinds may be cut up into new forms. Flat glass may also 
be cut into the most intricate and elegant forms. The red 
hot iron is far suijerior to strings wet with turj^entine, fric- 
tion, etc. 

Drillincf Glass. -For drilling holes in glass, a common stc-- 
drill, vv^ell made and well tempered, is the best tool. The 
steel should be forged at a low temperature, so as to be sure 
not to burn it, and then tempered as hard as possible in a 
bath of salt water that has been well boiled. Such a drill 
will go through glass very rapidly if kept well moistened 
with turpentine in which some camj^hor has been dissolved. 
Dilute sulphuric acid is equally good, if not better. It is 
stated, that at Berlin, glass castings for pump-barrels, etc., 
are drilled, planed and bored, like iron ones, and in the same 
lathes and machines, by the aid of sulphuric acid. A little 
X3ractice with these different i^lans v/ill enable the operator to 
cut and work glass as easily as brass or iron. 

Turning Glass in the Latlie. — Black diamonds are now so 
easily procured that they are the best tools for turning, 
planing or boring glass where much work is to be done. 
With a good diamond a skilful worker can turn a lens roughly 



5G THE WOEICSHOP COMPANION* 

out of a piece of iiat glass in a few seconds, so that it will h^ 
rerj near the right ghai^c. 

A splinter of diamond may be very readily fastened in the 
end of a piece of stout brass wire so that it may be used for 
drilling or turning glass. Bore a hole the size of the splinter 
and so deep that the diamond may be inserted beyond its 
largest part, but leaving the point jDrojecting. Then, by 
raeans of a pair of stout pliers, it is easy to press the end of 
the brass so that it will fill in around the diamond and hold 
it tight. Diamonds are sometimes cemented in such holes 
by means of shellac, or even solder run around them. This 
answers for some purposes, but not for drilling or turning. 

Fitting Glass Stoppei-s. — Very few stoppers fit properly the 
bottles for which they are intended. The stoppers and bot- 
tles are ground with copper cones, fed with sand and made 
to revolve rapidly in a lathe, and the common stock are not 
specially fitted. To fit a stoj^per to a bottle that has not been 
ground, use emery or coarse sand kept constantly wet with 
water, and replaced with fresh as fast as it is reduced to 
pov/der. When all the surface has become equally rough, it 
is considered a sign that the glass has been ground to the 
proper shape, as until that time the projecting X3arts only 
show traces of erosion. This is the longest and hardest part 
of the work, as after that the glass simply needs finishing 
and polishing. For that purpose emery only can be used> 
owing to the fact that the material can be obtained of any de- 
gree of fineness, in this respect diftering from sand. Other- 
v/ise the operation is the same as before, the emery being 
always kept moistened, and replaced v^^hen worn out. The 
grinding is continued until both the neck of the bottle and 
the stopper acquire a uniform finish, of a moderate degree of 
smoothness, and until the stopj)er fits so accurately that no 
shake can be felt in it, even though it be not twisted in 
tightly. * 

Glass Stojypei's. — To remove glass stoppers when tightly 
fixed, it has been recommended to apply a cloth wet in hot 
water. This is an inconvenient and frequently unsuccessful 
method. The great object is to expand the neck of the 
bottle so as to loosen it on the stopper. If, however, the 
latter be heated and expanded equally with the former, the 
desired effect is not produced; and this is often the case in 
applying hot water. By holding the neck of the bottle about 



THE AVOkKsJOP companion. 57 

half an inch above the flame of a lamp or candle, for a few 
seconds, we have never failed in the most obstinate cases. 
The hands should be wrapiDed in a towel, and great care 
should be taken not to let the flame touch the glass, as this 
might cause it to crack. The bottle should be kejDt rapidly 
turning, during the operation, so as to bring all parts of the 
neck equally under the influence of the heat, when it will be 
rapidly expanded and the stopper may be v/ithdrawn by a 
steady pull and tvv^ist. Sometimes it is necessary to tap the 
stopper lightly with a piece of wood; the jar is very apt to 
loosen the stopper. To tvN^ist the stox3per, make, in a i^iece 
of wood, an oblong hole into which the stopper will just fit. 

Glass, To Powder. — Powdered glass is frequently used in- 
stead of paper, cloth, cotton or sand for filtering varnishes, 
acids, etc. It is not soluble or corrodible. Sand, if j^nrely 
silicious, would be better, but such sand is difficult to get; 
it too often contains matters which are easily corroded or 
dissolved. Powdered glass when glued to paper is also used 
for polishing wood and other materials. It cuts rapidly and 
cleanly, and is better than sand for most purposes. Glass is 
easily pulverized after being heated red hot and plunged into 
cold water. It cracks in every direction, becomes hard and 
brittle, and breaks with keenly cutting edges. After being 
pounded in a mortar it may be divided into povv^ders of dif- 
ferent degrees of fineness by being sifted through law^n sieves. 

Glass, Imitation Ground — Put a piece of putty in muslin, 
twist the fabric tight, and tie it into the shape of a pad; well 
clean the glass first, and then putty it all over. The putty 
will exude sufficiently through the muslin to render the stain 
opaque. Let it dry hard, and then viirnish. If a pattern is 
required, cut it out in paper as a stencil; place it so as not 
to sKp, and proceed as above, removing the stencil when 
finished. If there should be any objection to the existence 
of the clear spaces, cover with slightly opaque varnish. In 
this way very neat and cheap signs may be painted on glass 
doors. 

^Glass Ware, Packing. — Every one has this duw to perforif 
occasionally, and it is well to know how it should be done. 
The safety of glass articles packed together in a box does mt 
depend so much upon the quantity of packing material used, 
as upon the fact that no two pieces of glass come into actual 
C/QUtact. In packing plates^ a single strav\^ placed betvyoen 



63 THE WORKSHOP V 'OMPANION. 

two of them will prevent them from breaking each other. In 
packing bottles in a case, such as the collecting case of the 
microscopist, and the test case of the chemist, rubber rings 
slipped over each, will be found the best and handiest i>ack- 
ing material. They have this great advantage that they do 
not give rise to dust. 

Washing Glass Vessels. — In many operations where glass 
vessels are used, success will depend upon having the glass 
perfectly clean. Upon this subject a correspondent of the 
Chemical News says : Such a subject may seem too simple, but 
yet the more I see students at their work, the more I am im- 
I3ressed with the fact that but few know how to w^ash a beaker- 
glass clean. Some time since I took beakers from various 
students in my laboratory (which they had w^ashed and put 
away), and held them under a powerful stream of water until 
they were thoroughly w^et. On taking them from under the 
si^out, in almost every case the water ran off the glass in 
si)ots, showing that the glass was greasy. The best thing to 
wash beakers, etc. , with, according to my experience, is sand- 
soap. Naturally, the sand must not be sharp. The soaps 
containing infusorial earth are most excellent for this pur- 
I)ose. Borax soaj) is also very efficacious. A piece of board 
about 20 cm. long, 15 cm. wide, and 4 cm. thick, should be 
screwed on to the right (inside) of the sink. In this block a 
rectangular hole, about 2 cm. deep and 1 cm. smaller than 
the section of the soap when stood on its long end, is to be 
cut. The bottom of the cake of soap is then w^hittled away 
so that it fits tightly in the hole. It is now moistened and 
pushed into the aperture, where it remains tightly fixed. i3y 
wetting the right hand thoroughly, and rubbing on this soap 
ridge, a good lather is made. With the soaj)y hand the glass 
is rubbed and washed until, on taking it from under the 
stream, no oily spots appear, the glass appearing v/et all over. 
The beaker is then dried with a good towel ("glass tov\xd*'), 
v.nl finally polished wifch a j)iece of chamois or kid leather. 
The final polish with kid is necessary, since the best towel 
leaves fibres on the glass. In cleaning test tubes, it is OTilv 
necessary to rub the probang on the soap. 

For cleaning flasks and bottles which have been soiled 
with varnishes or resins, or for cleaning the glass slides used 
for microscopic objects, proceed as follows: Hemove all the 
balsam, resin, varnish, etc, possible by meau^ of h,^%% 



THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 59 

scraping*, and a solution of soda or potash. "When the article 
is as clean as possible, place it in strong sulphuric- acid, to 
which must be added as much powdered bichromate of 
potassa. 

The chromic acid will quickly destroy all organic matter, 
and the article when washed in i:)ure water Avill be found j)er- 
fectlj clean. 

Grass. 

Grass, To SUmi Dried. — Tliere are few prettier ornaments, 
and none more economical and lasting, than bouquets of 
dried grasses mingled with the various unchangeable flowers. 
They have but one fault, and that is this, the want of other 
colors besides yellow and drab or brown. To vary their 
shade artificially, these flowers are sometimes dyed green. 
This, however, is in bad taste and unnatural. The best effect 
is produced by blending rose and red tints together, and with 
a very little pale blue with the grasses and flowers as they 
dry naturally. The best means of dyeing dried leaves, flow- 
ers and grasses, is to dip them into the alcoholic solution of 
the various compounds of aniline. Some of these have a 
beautiful rose shade; others red, blue, orange and i^urple. 
The depth of color can be regulated by diluting, if necessary, 
the original dyes, with alcohol, down to the shade desired. 
When taken out of the dye, they should be exposed to the 
air to dry off the alcohol. They then require arranging or 
eotting into form, as, w^hen v/et, the petals and fine filaments 
have a tendency to cling together. A pink saucer, as sold 
by most druggists, will supply enough rose dye for two 
ordinary bouquets. The pink saucer yields the best rose dye 
by washing it off wnth water and lemon juice. The aniline 
dyes yield the best violet, mauve and purple colors. 

Guns. 

The excellence of a gun depends very much upon the form 
and finish of the interior of the barrels, and as the owner 
may, if he chooses, work the inside of his gun over so as tc 
imjjrove it, we give a few directions. 

Freeing. — It has been found that a perfect cylindrical tuoe 
is not the best form for a gun barrel. Guns shoot most 
closely and strongly wdien the bore is very slightly enlarged 
towards the muzzle. This enlargement is easily effected by 
laeaiJS of verj fine emery paper vf rapped about a round rn^ 



m THE WOEKSHOP COMPAKION. 

and used with a little oil. The freeing may extend to about 
one-third of the length of the barrel, and the gun should be 
tested from time to time during the process, so as to get the 
very best results. The testing is done by firing a standard 
charge of powder and shot at a sheet of brown paper and 
noting the number of pellets that are put into a circle of 
given size, and also the force with which they are driven into 
a board. For ordinary bird guns, a 30-inch circle at forty 
yards, makes a good target. 

To Keep Bai^rels from Rusting. — One of the great difficulties 
which the sportsman has to contend against is the rusting of 
his barrels, even when protected by the best browning. The 
alkaline matter existing in snov/ and in rain, under certain 
conditions of the atmosphere, works through the best coat- 
ings, and reaches the iron. Yarnish, as ordinarily laid on, 
is objectionable, as it gives a gun a ''Brummagem" look. 
The best plan is the following: Heat the barrels to the tem- 
perature of boiling water (not any hotter, or you may injure 
them), and rub them with the best copal varnish, giving them 
a plentiful coating. Let them remain hot for half an hour, 
and then wipe them clean with a soft rag. In this way you 
can get enough of the varnish into the pores of the metal to 
act as a preservative, and, at the same time, no one would 
suspect that the barrels had ever been touched with varnish. 
We have applied boiled oil, beeswax, paraffin, and some 
other substances, in the same way, and obtained good results ; 
but on the whole, we find nothing better than good copal 
varnish. 

Browning Gun Bm^rels. — To obtain a handsomely browned 
barrel, we must not only use a first rata recipe, but we must 
apply a good deal of skill and no small amount of hard work. 
When ba,rrels are imperfectly brov/ned, the fault lies more 
frequently in defective work than in the use of a poor reci]3e. 

The following are the directions given in the United 
Slat'3s Ordnance Manual, and it is to be presumed that 
these are the directions that are follov>^ed in the government 
armories. 

Mateinals for Browning Mixture. — Spirits of wine, 1| oz. ; 
tincture of steel, 1^ oz. ; corrosive sublimate, 1^ oz. ; sweet 
spirits of nitre, 1^ oz. ; blue vitriol, 1 oz. ; nitric acid, | oz. 
To be mixed and dissolved in one quart of warm water, the 
^uixture to be kept in glass bottles apd npt in ^arthen jugs. 



THE AVOEKSHOP COMPANION, 61 

Previous to commencing the operation of browning, it is 
nece.ssaiy that the barrel or other part should be made quite 
bright with emery or a fine smooth file (but not burnished), 
after which it must be carefully cleaned from all greasiness ; a 
small quantity of powdered lime rubbed well over every j^art 
of the barrel, is the best for this purpose, but in the case of 
old work, v\^hich is very oily or greasy, or when the oil or 
grease has become dried or gummed on the surface, the bar- 
rels must be first washed v^^ith a strong solution of potash in 
warm water. After this the lime may be a23plied. Plugs of 
wood are then to be put into the muzzle of the barrel and 
into the vent, and the mixture applied to every part with a 
clean sponge or rag. The barrel is then to be exposed to the 
air for twenty -four hours, after which time it is to be well 
rubbed over with a steel scratch-card or scratcli-hritsli, until 
the rust is entirely removed; the mixture may then be ap- 
plied again, as before, and in a few hours the barrel will be 
sufficiently corroded for the operation of scratch-brushing to 
be repeated. The same process of scratching off the rust and 
applying the mixture is to be repeated twice or three times a 
day for four or five days, by which time the barrel will be of 
a very dark brown color. 

When the barrel is su:Sc5.ently brown, and the rust has 
been carefully removed from every part, about a quart of 
'boiling water should be poured over every part of the bar- 
rel, in order that the action of the acid mixture upon the 
barrel may be destroyed, and the rust thereby j)revented 
from rising again. 

The barrel, when cold, should afterwards be rubbed over 
with linseed oil or S23erm oil. It is particularly directed that 
the steel scratch-card or scratch-brush be used in the place 
of a hard hair-brush, otherwise the browning will not be 
durable nor have a good appearance. 

If the work be handled with unclean or greasy hands, im- 
perfectly browned places v\^ill show where the hands have 
touched the barrels. 

Varnish for Browned Iron. — Shellac, 1 oz. ; dragon's blood, 
3-16ths of an oz. ; alcohol, 1 quart. ^ 

Very complete directions for browning gun-barrels m-cjy 
be found in a little book called ^'Shooting on the Wing," 
which may be obtaiiied from, th^ publishers of thi^ yoi- 



62 THE \YOEKSHOP COMPANION. 

Handles, To Fasten. 

The handles of knives, forks, and similar articles, that 
have come off by being put in hot water, may be fastened on 
in the following manner: 

1. Take j^owderod resin and mix with it a small quantity 
of powdered chalk, whiting or slaked lime. Fill the hole 
in the handle with the mixture, heat the tang of the knife or 
fork and thrust in. When cold it will be securely fastened. 

2. Take one lb. resin and 8 oz. sulj^hur, melt together, 
form into bars, or when cold reduce to powder. One j^art of 
the powder is to be mixed with half a part of iron filings, 
brick dust or fine sand; lill the cavity of the handle with the 
mixture and insert the tang, previously heated. 

3. Brick dust and powdered resin, make a very good com- 
position. It may be melted and j)oured into the handle, or 
powdered and then put in, and the tang inserted warm. 

4. Choj)ped hair, flax, hemv) or tow, mixed with j)owdered 
resin and applied as above. 

5. One pound colophony, 8 oz. sulphur; melt, and when 
cool reduce to powder. Mix with this some fine sand or 
brick dust, and use as stated. 

6. Take a portion of a quill, put it into the handle, warm 
the tang and insert it into the quill in the handle, and press 
it firmly. This is a sim^^le method, and answers the purpose 
required very well. 4 

Ink. 

The varieties of va-iting-iluids tha,t have been devised and 
introduced are almost Innumerable,, bub for practical pur- 
poses the inks in common use may be divided into three 
classes, viz: 1. Those which consist of a powder mechanic- 
ally divided and suspended in water by means of mucila.ge. 
2. Those Vv'liich consist of chemical precipitates held in sus- 
pension in the same way. 3. Those Avliich consist of a true 
solution of some coloring matter, such as aniline or carmine. 
Of the first class, Indian or China ink is the great tj'pe. It 
consists of carbon in the form of very fine la-mp-black, ground 
to a state of impalpable fineness in v^ater, and mixed vrith 
some pure form of gelatine. Its use is wholly restricted to 
draughtsmen, who prefer it for several reasons. In the first 
place, it gives the finest and clearest black of any ink knovvu; 
RCC'Ond, it is unchangeable; and in the third place, it docg 



THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 63 

not eorrotle the fine and expensive steel instruments with 
which it is used. A really good article of Indian ink is some- 
what difficult to find. Much of the ink in market is gritty, 
and instead of being a fine jet black, it is of a blueish-gray 
color. Moreover, notwithstanding all the grinding that the 
ai-tist can give it, the particles are always coarse, and it does 
not readily sink into the paper. With such ink it is difficult 
to draw fine, clear, black lines, and utterly imj)ossible to 
produce a soft n^ellow tint in shading. It is probable that 
the quality of the ink depends not only upon the materials 
from which it is m^de, but upon the method pursued in its 
manufacture, and in regard to both these points we are as yet 
wholly in the dark. When good Indian ink is wanted, there- 
fore, the only method of securing it is to test carefully the 
various samples, until ^ve get a good one, and then secure a 
supply that will last indefinitely. Fortunately the last is not 
a difficult thing to do, when we have found a sample that 
suits us; for a single stick of Indian ink, if carefully used, 
will last many years, even in the hands of a professional 
draughtsman. Of late years ii liquid Indian ink has been in- 
troduced, and has given good si>tisf action, but it is scarce and 
expensive. Since the ordinary Indian ink is made up with a 
fine animal glue, instead of muciiuge made of vegetable gum, 
it very soon decomiDoses when ground up with water. Hence 
it can not be kept in bottles like ordinary ink, but must be 
prepared fresh whenever it is needed. As an ink for ordinary 
writing it is worthless, for the simple reason that it does noii 
fiow well, though for jjurposes Vvdiere an absolutely indelible 
ink is needed — as, for instance, in wridng out deeds and 
records — nothing better can be obtained. When used for . 
this purpose, the addition of a very small quantity of caustic 
alkali— or, what is better yet, of ox-gall — causes it to flow 
freely and to sink deeply into the paper or other material 
uscv."^ to receive it, provided the latter be not too heavily 
sized. When properly applied, neither heat, moisture, acids, 
alkalies, nor chemicals of any kind, affect it; and it might 
therefore be properly used to write those records which are 
placed under the corner-stones of imxjortant buildings, and 
which are expected to endure for an indefinite period. 

The second class of inks comi^rises all those black inks and 
writing fluids that are commonly employed for commercial 
coyirespQijcleiice ^nd records, Jhe different fprmiU^e for tJl^ 



64 THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 

preparation of ink that have "been published, would fill a 
good sized volume; but most of the inks and writing fluids in 
market consist of a precipitate of gallate or tannate of iron, 
held in suspension by means of mucilage. Since iron may 
be used in either one of two distinct conditions when it is 
employed for the manufacture of ink, it follows that two dis- 
tinct kinds of ink may be made from it. In one of these the 
iron is fully oxidated, and the ink is of a deep jet black. The 
precipitate of iron which exists in such ink seems to assume 
a coarse and heavy form, with a strong tendency to sink to 
the bottom of the containing vessel. It therefore requires a 
large proportion of mucilage to keep the coloring matter in 
suspension. The advantage which it possesses, is, that the 
ink is, from the very first, of a deep black ; but on the other 
hand, the objections are quite as important, and consist in 
the fact that it can not be made to flow freely, and that it 
does not sink well into the paj)er, and is consequently easily 
removed. On the other hand, ink made with salts in which 
the iron exists as protoxide, is always pale at first, but after- 
wards assumes a dark hue; it flows freely and sinks well into 
the fibre, so that it is difficult to remove marks made by it. 
This character it is aT)t to lose, however, when exposed to 
the air, as we shall note when si^eaking of the j)veservation of 
ink. 

In some cases a compromise is made, and the ink is pre- 
pared from materials, j)art of which only are in a state of 
complete oxidation. An attempt is thus made to secure an 
ink, which, while black from the first, will flov/ freely and 
sink well into the paper, and some very good inks are thus 
comi^ounded. 

Most of the inks known as violet, mauve, blue, rede car- 
mine, etc., consist of true chemical solutions, generally 
nowadays of aniline, though the finest red ink is still made 
from carmine dissolved in ammonia. From the fact that 
there is no solid material to be kept in supension, these inks 
do not require mucilage in their composition provided they 
are used on paper that has a good deal of size in it; they con- 
sequently flow freely, „do not leave a heavy streak of liquid 
behind the pen, and the streak that they do leave sinks 
almost instantly into the pajDer and disappears. In using 
them, no blotter is required; and they are, therefore, great 
l^yorites with authors and those persons who pay Jess regard 



TPIE WOEKSHOP COMPANIOK. 65 

to fhe Tjolor of their writing tlian to the ease with which the 
work is done, and the clearness and unblotted appearance 
which it presents. But from the fact that no really good 
black ink of this class has yet been produced, they have not 
come into general use amongst book-keepers and commercial 
men, and it must be acknov/ledged that on the whole a good 
black ink gives a better appearance to a set of books than ink 
of any other color. 

Ink used for copying letters by means of the press, requires 
to be thicker than that used for ordinary writing, and there- 
fore it is less pleasant to use; but the great advantage which 
attends the mechanical process of copying letters will always 
keep up the demand for it. 

Such being the peculiar character of the inks in common 
use, it may be well to say a few v/ords concerning the best 
methods of preserving them in good condition. The great 
enemies of all inks are evaporation, dust, and decomposition, 
and, in the case of iron inks, oxidation. The first difficulty 
'Can only be avoided by keeping the ink from exposure to the 
:air, and this is best ejected by adopting an inkstand in which 
the ink exposes a very small surface to the air. Many of 
the inkstands in use are made large at the base, for the pur- 
pose of rendering them difficult to overturn. In such stands 
the ink is spread out in a thin, wide layer, and not only 
evaporates rapidly, but where ordinary black ink is used, the 
iron oxidates, and the ink consequently deteriorates. A very 
common practice on the parb of those who use ink, is to leave 
the mouth of the stand uncovered, in which case the ink 
becomes in a short time reduced to mud. All these diffi- 
culties may be in a measure avoided by using a heavy stand, 
having a small well or ink-holder, which should be kept well 
covered when not in use, and ought to be frequently cleaned, 
the old ink being thrown away. The supply of ink should 
be kept in a bottle, securely corked, and when the stand is 
filled, the new ink ought never to be poured, into the old, as 
is generally done. Throw the old ink away; wash out tho 
stand carefully, and fill it up with nev/ fluid, and then you 
can enjoy the luxury of writing with ink that flows freely, 
and does not take half a minute to moisten the paper at each 
stroke that you attempt to make. To keep ink in good 
order, the stand should be washed out every two or threj 
iveeks, ^ 



Ca THE WOPJCSHOP COMPANION. 

Many inks, especially those made with iron and galls, are 
liable to mould and decompose. The formation of mould 
may, to a certain extent, be prevented by the use of creosote, 
carbolic acid, or cloves, and most of the better class of inks 
in market are prepared so as to resist this evil. 

In the recipes generally given for making ink, it is recom- 
mended to hoil the ingredients. A much better plan is to 
powder the galls and macerate them in cold water. By this 
latter process, more time is of course necessary to make it; 
but then the ink is very superior, and entirely free from 
extractive matter which has no inky quality, and which 
only tends to clog the pen and to turn the ink ropy and 
mouldy. 

Black Ink. — 1. In 1 gallon of water macerate 1 lb. of finely 
powdered Aleppo galls for two weeks, and strain off the 
liquid. Dissolve 5^ oz. sulphate of iron and 5 oz. gum arable 
in as little water as is necessary, and mix the two liquids with 
constant stirring. Keep in a tall bottle, allow it to settle for 
some days, and it will be ready for use. 

2. Take gall nuts, broken, one pound; suli)hate of iron, 
half a pound; gum acacia and sugar candy, of each, a quarter 
of a pound; water, three quarts. Place the whole of these 
ingredients in a vessel where they can be agitated once a 
day; after standing for a fortnight or three wrecks the ink is 
ready for use. Logwood and similar materials, are often 
advised to be used in conjunction with the gall nuts, but 
they serve no good purpose unless it be to make a cheaper 
article which fades rapidly. 

3. It is said that the juice of elderberries to which sul- 
phate of iron has been added, makes a good ink. The best 
formula is said to be 12^ pints juice and ^ oz. each sul^jhate 
of iron and crude pyroligneous acid. 

Eunge's Black Ink. — 1. The original recipe of the inventor 
is as follows: Digest I lb. logw^ood in chips for 12 hours in 3 
pints boiling w^ater. Simmer dow^n gently to 1 quart, filter 
and add 20 grains yellow chromate of potassa. 

2. The following modification of the above is more easily 
prepared: Dissolve 16 parts of extract of logwood in 1,000 
parts of water, and add 1 part of neutral potassium chromate 
(yellow chromate of potassa). 

" Blue Ink. — Take 6 drachms pure Prussian blue and 1 
drachm oxalic acid. Grind in a mortar with a little water 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 67 

until they form a perfectly smooth paste. Dissolve a suf- 
ficient quantity of this paste in water to give the proper tint. 

Carmine Ink, French Process. — Take 22 grammes (4 grains) 
of the best carmine, add to it sixty-live grammes (2 ounces) 
of caustic ammonia, add one gramme (15^ grains) of white 
gum arabic. Leave the mixture until the gum is entirely . 
dissolved. This ink is undoubtedly dearer than that pre- 
jjared in the ordinary way, but it is incomparably more 
beautiful and more durable, for experience has proved that 
letters written with this ink, have for forty years been pre- 
served without the slightest alteration. 

Red Ink. — Boil I lb. of Brazil wood, I oz. of gum, \ oz. 
of sugar, and i oz. of alum in a sufficient quantity of vinegar. 

Ayiiline Inks. — The following formulae for aniline inks are 
from recent authorities, and are said to give sui3erior results: 

Alcoholic Solutions. — 1. General Formula: Dissolve 15 
parts of aniline color in 150 parts of strong alcohol in a ves- 
sel of glass or enamelled iron for three hours; then add 1,000 
parts distilled water; heat gently for some hours, — in fact, 
till the odor of the alcohol has quite disappeared; then add 
a solution consisting of 60 parts of pov/dered gum arabic in 
250 parts of Avater. 

2. Special Formula for Yiolet: Digest i oz. aniline violet 
in 1 oz. alcohol in a suitable vessel, as above, for three hours; 
then add 1 qt. of distilled water, and heat gently till odor of 
spirit is dissipated. Then add 2 drachms gum arabic dis- 
solved in i pt. water, and allow the whole to settle. This 
will bear dilution, if desired, with an additional quantity of 
distilled water. 

3. Special Formula for Blue : Dissolve 15 grains aniline 
blue in 1 oz. alcohol, and add 6 oz. in distilled water. Boil 
in proper vessel, as above, until odor of alcohol has dis- 
appeared. Then add 3 drachms powdered gum arabic dis- 
solved in 4 oz. distilled water. Finally filter. It will be 
perceived that there is considerable difference in the above 
special formulae, but there can be no harm in making it too 
strong, as it is no difficult matter to dilute with distilled 
water to taste. 

Aqueous Solutions. — 1. Magenta, 1 oz. to the gallon of 
boiling distilled water. 2. Violet: \ oz. to a gallon ditto. 
3. Blue : 1 o^ ^ 10 pts. ditto. 4. Green : 1 oz. to 5 pts. 
ditto. 



68 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 

The addition of a small quantity of vinegar will consider* 
ably improve tlie color of bine aniline finid. These aqneous 
solutions are very enduring, tliongli not exactly permanent, 
as they give vv^ay to long-continned exposure to sunlight* 
They are very limpid, dry quickly, and never clog. They 
should of course be filtered. 

Gold Ink.—GcvvAdi gold-leaf with honey in a mortar until ifc 
is reduced to a fine powder. Wash out the honey with hot 
water and add mucilage of gum arable. A cheaj) article may 
be made by using yellow bronze powder. 

Silver Ink. — Prepared in the same way as gold ink, using 
silver leaf or silver bronze powder. 

Marking Ink for Linen. — ^Dissolve I oz. D'*trate of silver in 

1 oz. water and add strong liquid ammonia antil the x^recipi- 
tate which is at fii'st formed is redissolved. Add 1^ drachms 
gum mucilage and enough coloring ma er to render the 
writing clearly visible. The writing is r a-de black and in- 
delible by i)assing a hot iron over it. Keep in the dark. 

Indeli¥ '. Aniline Ink. — Triturate If grammes of aniline- 
black with 60 drops of strong hydrochloric acid and 42 or 43 
grammes strongest alcohol; then add to it a hot solution of 

2 J grammes gum arable in 170 grammes of water. 

This ink attacks steel pens but little. It is not destroyed 
either by strong mineral acids or by strong lye. 

If the first alcoholic solution of aniline black be diluted 
with a solution of 2^ grammes of shellac in 140 grammes of 
alcohol (instead of gum arable in 170 grammes of water) an 
ink is produced which may be employed for writing on wood, 
brass or leather, and which is remarkable for its deej) black 
color. 

Indelible Indian Ink. — ^Draughtsmen are well aware of the 
fact that lines drawn on paper with good India ink which 
has been well prepared, can not be washed out by mere 
sponging or washing with a brush. Nov>^, however, it is 
proposed to take advantage of the fact that glue or gelatine, 
when mixed with bichromate of potassa, and exposed to the 
light, becomes insoluble, and thus renders India ink, which 
always contains a little gelatine, indelible. Eeisenbichler, 
the discoverer, calls this kind of ink *'Harttusch," or ''hard 
India ink ;" it is made by adding to the common article, v/hen 
making, about one per cent., in a very tine powder, of 
bichromate of potash This must be mixed with the ink m 



THE WOEKSfiOP COMPANION. 69 

a dry state; otherwise, it is said, the ink could not be ground 
up easily in water. Those who can not provide themselves 
with ink prepared as above in the cake, can use a dilute 
solution of bichromate of potash in rubbing up the ink; it 
answers the same purpose, though the ink should be used 
thick, so that the yellow salt will not spread. 

Indestructible Ink.. — ^An ink that can not be erased with 
acids is obtained by the following recipe: To good gall ink 
add a strong solution of fine soluble Prussian blue in dis- 
tilled water. This addition makes the ink, which was x>re- 
viouslj proof against alkalies, equally proof against acids, 
and forms a writing fluid which cannot be erased without 
destroying the paper. The ink w^rites greenish blue, but 
afterwards turns black. 

hik that will not Freeze. — It is said that a mixture of equal 
parts of concentrated glycerine, alcohol and water, deeply 
colored with aniline black, does not freeze in the coldest 
weather, flows freely from the pen, and does not spread. 
Our only fear would be that such ink would not dry thor- 
oughly. 

Sympatlietic Ink or Secret Ink. — Write with thin solution of 
starch, and let the correspondent w^ash with solution of 
iodine. 

2. Write with milk, onion juice or lemon juice, and let 
the correspondent expose to heat. 

3. Write with solution of tartar emetic and wash with any 
alkaline sulphuret. 

4. Brown. — On dissolving 1 part of potassium bromide, 
and 1 part of cop^oer sulphate in 20 parts of water, and 
writing with the solution on paper, ve^^y careful heating will 
turn the writing brown. 

5. Yellowish-green. — ^Writing done with a solution of 2 
parts of potassium chromate, 2 of nitric acid, 2 of sodium 
chloride in 40 parts of water, turns yellowish-green on gentle 
warming. 

6. Blue. — A solution of equal parts of sodium chloride 
and cobalt chloride in 20 times the amount of water pro- 
duces lines which turn blue on gentle warming. 

Letters may be written on postal cards with these inks, 
and will remain invisible until washed Avith the appropriate 
solution or exposed to heat. To prevent the letters from 
being seen by close scrutiny the solutions should be very 



70 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. , 

dilute, and to distract the attention of those not in thd 
secret, Avrite some unimportant matter, in lines far apa]?t, 
and between them Avrite the j^i'ivate matter in secret or sym- 
pathetic ink. 

Inks for Rubber Stamps and Ste7icils. — 1. Black. Bub to- 
gether one part of finest lampblack and 2 parts of Prussian 
blue with a little glycerin, then add 1 part powdered gum 
arable, and enough glycerin to form a thin j)aste. 

2. Carmine. — Dissolve 24 grains of carmine in 3 fl. oz. of 
water of ammonia, then add 2 fl. drachms of glycerin. 
Incori3orate with this ^ oz. of i^owdered gum arable. 

3. Blue. — Bub together 6 parts of jDure Prussian blue and 
1 part oxalic acid with a little water, to a perfectly smooth 
paste. Let it stand in a rather Avarm place over night, then 
rub it with more water, and with 1 part of gum arabic to a 
thin jDast^. 

4. Aniline inks may be made of any desired shade in the 
same manner. The best way of using these inks is by ap- 
plying them, by means of a small pad, uniformly to a little 
cushion, on w liich the stamps are then inked. 

The above formulae have been tested by experience, and 
are said to give good results. Another set of formulae, also 
highly recommended, is the folloAving: 

5. Black. — Finest lampblack, 10 j^arts ; powdered gum 
arabic, 4 parts ; glycerin, 4 parts ; water, 3 parts. Dissolve 
the gum arabic in the w^ater, add the glycerin, then rub the 
lampblack w ith the mixture in a mortar. 

6. Colored. — ^Beplace the lampblack in the above formula 
by the appropriate color ; chrome-yellow for yellow ; red 
lead or red ochre for red ; green, ultramarine, or chrome- 
green for green ; indigo or Prussian blue, or blue ultramarine 
for blue ; umber for brown, etc. 

Ink Eraser. 

A good ink eraser is thus made : Take of chloride of lime, 
one pound, thoroughly pulverized, and four quarts of soft 
water. The above must be thoroughly shaken when first put 
together. It is required to stand twenty -four hours to dis- 
solve the chloride of lime ; then strain through a cotton cloth, 
after w^hich add a teaspoonful of acetic acid to every ounce 
of the chloride of lime water. The ei*aser is used by revers- 
ing the penholder into the fluid, and applying it, without 



THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 71 

nibbing, to the word, figure, or blot required to be erased. 
When the ink has disappeared, absorb the fluid with a blot- 
tor, and the paper is immediately ready to write upon again. 
C'hloride of lime has before been used with acids for the 
l>arpose as above pr0230S8d ; but in all j^revious processes the 
chloride of lime has been mixed with acids that l)urn and 
destroy the paper. 

Inlaying. 

Inlaying is a term applied to yv ork in which certain figures 
which have been cut out of one kind of material are filled up 
with another of a different color. Such work is known as 
marquetry, and also as Boule work, and Beisner work, from 
the names of two famous French aiiists. • 

The simplest method of producing inlaid work in wood, is 
to take two thin boards, of wood or veneers, and glue them 
together with -paper between, so that they may be easily sep- 
arated again. Then, having drawn the required figures on 
them, cut along the lines with a very fine, hair-like saw. 
This jDrocess is known as counterpart sawing, and by it the 
pieces removed from one piece of wood, so exactly corres- 
pond v/itli the perforations in the other jDiece, that when 
the tvv^o colors are separated and interchanged, the one mate- 
rial forms the ground and the other the inlay or pattern. If 
the saw be fine and the wood very dry when cut, but after- 
wards slightly damped when glued in its place, the joint is 
visible only on very close inspection, and then merely as a fine 
line. After being cut, the boards or veneers are sej^arated 
(which is easily done by splitting the paper between them), 
and then glued in their places on the work which they are to 
ornament. 

Imitation Inlaying. — Suppose an oak j)anel with a design 
inlaid with walnut is wanted. Grain the i3anel wholly in oil. 
This is not a bad ground for walnut. When the oak is dry, 
grain the whole of the panel in distem^jer. Have a pajDer 
with the design drawn thereon, the back of which has been 
rubbed with whiting, place it on the panel, and with a 
I^ointed stick trace the design. Then with a brush and quick 
varnish trace the whole of the design. When the varnish is 
dry, with a sponge and water remove the distemj)er, where 
the varnish has not touched. This, if well executed, pre- 
sents a most beautiful imitation of inlaid wood. Marbles 
are executed in a similar manner. 



72 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 

Iron. 

This m tindoubtedly tlie most important metal used in tlie 
arts. Directions for working it, such at least as would be 
valuable to i^rofessional blacksmiths, would occupy more 
space than we can afford, and we therefore content ourselves 
wdth a few hints for amateurs. 

Forging. — As a general rule, those who are not practical 
blacksmiths had better take their work to a smith's shoi3. 
Cases may, however, arise where it is necessary to forge 
some little job, and the following hints may prove of use. 

In working iron a great deal depends ui3on the degree of 
heat to which it is raised. Blacksmiths distinguish five 
degrees, which they, name as follows : 

1. The black-red heat, just visible by daylight. 

2. The low-red heat. 

3. The bright red heat, when the black scales may be seen. 

4. The white heat, Avhen the scales are scarcely visible. 

5. The welding heat, when the iron begins to burn with 
vivid sparks. 

Of these temperatures the 1st, 2nd and 3rd are easily at- 
tained in a common stove or grate. It requires good man- 
agement to secure the 4th in a common stove, and the 5th 
can hardly be obtained without a blast. The higher the 
temperature the softer and more easily worked the metal 
becomes, and the less liable to crack or split ; and as good 
iron is not easily spoilt, like steel, by a high heat, it is always 
best to get the metal i^retty soft. 

Welding. — This operation requires considerable skill. The 
two great points to be attended to in making a perfect weld 
are that the metal shall be brought to a proper temperature, 
and that the surfaces to be united shall be perfectly clean. 
The latter j)oint can only be secured by protecting the iron 
from the action of the air by means of some flux. Sand is 
generally used by blacksmiths and answers very well. When 
sand is brought into contact with oxide of iron at a high 
temperature, it combines wdth it and forms a fusible glass 
which flows over the surface of the iron and is easily driven 
out of the joint by pressure. Borax makes a still more fusi- 
ble flux and may be successfully used by amateurs, but is too 
expensive for common use. 

When two surfaces of iron, which have been cleansed by 
means of sand or borax, are brought together at a high heat 



THE WORKSHOP COIVIP ANION. , 73 

and forcibly i^ressed into contact by hammering or pressure, 
they unite to form a soHd mass. Bearing these princii^les in 
mind, a little practice will soon enable any one to make a re- 
sx^ectable joint by welding. 

Case-hardening. — This process is simjDly the conversion of 
the surface of a piece of iron into steel. Case-hardened arti- 
cles, when i^lunged into cold water while highly heated, be- 
come as hard as the hardest steel, but they may be annealed 
and softened so as to be easily worked with files and turning 
tools, and afterwards hardened again so as to be as durable 
as ever. There are several i^rocesses for 2)erforming this op- 
eration. The following have been tested by experience : 

1. Where it is desired that the articles should be hardened 
to a considerable depth : Char a quantity of bones, just 
enough [and no more) to enable you to ]30wder them Avitli a 
hammer. Lay a layer of this bone dust over the bottom of 
an iron tray or box, w^hich may be easily made by bending 
heavy sheet iron into form. Lay the articles to be hardened 
on the bone dust, taking care that they do not touch each 
other. Cover with bone dust and fill up the tray with spent 
dust, charcoal or sand. Exj^ose to a bright cherry red heat 
for half an hour or an hour, and then turn the entire contents 
of the tray into a vessel of cold v/ater. We have seen bea,u- 
tiful results obtained by this process when carried out in a 
common kitchen stove. 

Even raw bone dust, such as is sold for farming purposes, 
may be used with good results. Pieces of gas pipe make 
good receptacles to hold the work, the ends being stopj^ed 
with iron plugs. When packing the articles in the tubes or 
trays, see that they do not touch each other. 

Bone black or ivory black may also be used, and, as they 
may be i^urchased ready prepared, we may avoid the disa- 
greeable process of roasting the raw material. 

As this roasting of bones, leather, etc., gives rise to most 
abominable odors, the author of this manual some years ago 
devised the following i3reparation, which w^as found to give 
very excellent results. Pre23are a strong solution of prussiate 
of i3otassa, boil in it as much coarsely-powdered w^ood char- 
coal as. can be mixed with it. Drain off the sui3erfluous 
liquid, spread the charcoal on a board, and dry by exposure 
to the air. When dry, roast it at a temperature just below 
that of ignition, the object being to drive off all moist ure^ 



74 'xHE WORKSHOP COMPAMION. 

but not to decompose the priissiate, which, at a red heat, is 
converted into cyanide of potassium and some other com- 
pounds. The charcoal thus prejiared, and afterwards re- 
duced to a moderately fine powder, will be found to answer 
quite as well as animal charcoal, and no difficulty will be 
found in case-hardening to a depth w hich will allow of a good 
deal of polishing before the soft metal underneath is reached. 

2. Where mere superficial hardening is required, heat the 
article to be hardened to a bright red ; sj^rinkle it liberally 
with powdered prussiate of j)otash. The salt will fuse, and 
if the piece of iron is small and gets cooled, heat it again and 
j>lunge into cold water. 

Rust and Corrosion. — Iron is easily corroded by even the 
weak acids. Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and hydrochloric 
acid all act on it quickly and powerfully. Air and moisture 
also quickly corrode it. It is a curious fact that carbonate 
of soda protects iron very perfectly from rust. We have 
seen a piece of iron that had been kept in a solution of soda 
for twenty years, and yet was quite bright. 

There are several methods of protecting iron from rust. 
Painting, varnishing, tinning, zincing, etc., have all been 
tried with good effect. Painting and varnishing need no re- 
marks. Where bright work is to be temporarily protected, 
however, a paint of white lead and tallow may be used. 
This will not dry, and may be easily and quickly removed 
with a little turj^entine. 

Zincing Iron. — The following is an excellent and cheap 
method for j)rotecting from rust, iron articles exi)osed to the 
atmosphere, such as cramp-irons for stone, etc. : They are to 
be first cleansed by placing them in open wooden vessels, in 
water containing three-fourths to one per cent, of common 
sulphuric acid, and allowed to remain in it until the surface 
appears clean, or may be rendered so by scouring with a rag 
or wet sand. According to the amount of acid, this may re- 
quire from six to twenty-four hours. Fresh acid must be 
added according to the extent of use and of the liquid ; when 
this is saturated with sulphate of iron, it must be renewed. 
After removal from this bath, the articles are rinsed in fresh 
water, and scoured until they acquire a clean metallic surface, 
and then kept in water in which a little slaked lime has been 
stirred, until the next operation. When thus freed from rust, 
they are to be coated with a thin film of zinc, while cold, by 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 75 

means of chloride of zinc, which may be made h 7 filling a 
glazed earthen vessel, of about two-thirds gallon capacity, 
three -fourths full of muriatic a- 'id, •ud abiding zinc clippings 
until effervescence ceases. The liquid is th'ni to be turned 
off from the undissolved zinc, and i)reserved in a glass vessel. 
For use, it is poured into a sheet-zinc vessel, oi* suitable size 
and shape for the objects, and about I'oO per cent, of its 
weight of finely pov/dcred sal ammoniac added. The articles 
are then immersed in it, a scum of lino bubbles forming on 
the surface in from one to two minutes, indicative of the 
completion of the operation. The articles are next drained, 
so that the excess may flow back into the vessel. The iron 
articles thus coated with a fine tllm of zinc are placed on 
clean sheet iron, heated from boiieath, and perfectly dried, 
and then dipped piece by piece, by means of tongs, into very 
hot (though not glowing) molt an zinc, for a short time, until 
they acquire the temperature of the zinc. They are then 
removed and beaten, to cause the excess of zinc to fall off. 

Cold Process for Ziaciytf^ Iron. — The metal is first cleaned 
by being placed in a ]:)ath made up of water, 1,000 litres : 
chlorhydric acid, 550 Hires ; sul2)liuric acid, 50 litres ; glycer- 
ine, 20 litres. On being removed from this bath, the metal 
is placed in a bath containing 10 per cent, of carbonate of 
potassa, and is next transferred to a metallizing bath, consist- 
ing of water, 1,000 litres ; chloride of tin, 5 kilos. ; chloride 
of zinc, 4 kilos. ; bitartnite of potassa, 8 kilos. ; acid sulphate 
of alumina, 4 kilos.; chloride of aluminum, 10 kilos. The 
metal is to be left in this mixture for from three to twelve 
hours, according to the thickness of the layer of zinc to be 
desired. 

Tinning Iron. — The surface of the iron is cleaned from scale 
by vitriol or sulphuric acid, and then scoured with sand. It 
is now coated with a strong solution of chloride of zinc, and 
dipped into melted tin. The tin will instantly adhere t^ 
every spot that is clean. 

Tinning Iron in the Cold. — The chief point which requires 
attention in this matter is that the tinning of iron in the cold 
cannot succeed at all, unless the bath contains, in solution or 
suspension, an organic substance like starch or glucose, 
although no precise scientific explanation of this indispensi- 
ble condition has been hitherto given. To 100 litres of 
water are added 3 kilos, of rye meal ; this mixture is boiled 



76 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

for half an hour, and next filtered tlirongli cloth ; to the 
plear but thickish liquid are added 106 kilos, of pyrophos- 
pliate of soda, 17 kilos, of protochloride of tin in crystals (so- 
called tin-salt), 67 kilos, of neutral x>rotocliloride of tin, 100 
to 120 grms. of sulphuric acid ; this liquid is placed in well- 
made wooden troughs, and serves more especially for the 
tinning of iron and steel wire (x)reviously polished) for the 
use of carding machines. When instead of the two sorts of 
tin just named*, cyanide of silver and cyanide of potassium 
are taken, the iron is perfectly silvered. 

Briglitenmg Iron. — A Bavarian serial contains a method of 
brightening iron recommended by Boden. The articles to 
be brightened are, when taken from the forge or the rolls, in 
the case of such articles as plates, wire, etc. , placed in dilute 
sulphuric acid (1 to 20), cleansing the articles, which are 
then washed clean with water and dried with sawdust. They 
are then dipped for a second or so in nitrous acid, washed 
carefully, dried in sawdust and rubbed clean. It is said that 
iron goods thus treated acquire a bright surface, having a 
white glance, without undergoing any of the usual polishing 
operations. This is a process that those interested can easily 
test for themselves. Boden states that the action of the sul- 
phuric acid is increased by the addition of a little carbolic 
acid, but it is difficult to see what effect this can have, and it 
may very well be dispensed with. 

To Remove the Blue Color Imparted to Iron and Steel hy ex- 
posure to Heat. — Bub lightly with a sponge or rag dipjDed in 
diluted sulphuric, nitric, or hydrochloric acid. When the 
discoloration is removed, carefully wash the article, dry it 
by rubbing, warm it and give a coat of oil or it will rapidly 
rust. 

Ivory. 

Ivory is obtained from the tusk of the elephant, and 
although material nearly resembling it may be obtained from 
other animals, yet the true ivory stands unequalled as a ma- 
terial for ornamental turning and carving. It is not so brittle 
as bone, neither does it splinter so much when broken, and 
as it is entirely free from the vessels or pores which permeate 
all bone, the finished articles have a much more solid and 
even appearance. AJthough distinctly fibrous it cannot be 
torn up in filaments like bone or divided into thin leaves. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 77 

except by the saw. It is in all respects the most suitable 
material for ornamental turning, as it is capable of receiving 
the most delicate lines and of being cut in the most slender 
proportions. But while it is thus valuable as a material for 
ornamental work, it is useless for any article requiring ac- 
curacy in its dimensions — such for example as the scales of 
draughtsmen and the graduated arcs of instruments for mea- 
suring angles. Owing to the great alterations which it sus- 
tains under slight atmospheric changes it cannot be relied 
upon, and has been condemned officially by the survey com- 
missioners of almost all countries. 

It is imagined by some that ivory may be softened so as to 
admit of being moulded like horn or tortoise shell. Its 
different analysis contradicts this expectation ; thick pieces 
suffer no change in boiling water, thin pieces become a little 
more flexible, and thin shavings give off their jelly, which sub- 
stance is occasionally iDrei^ared from them. It is true that the 
caustic alkali will act upon ivory as well as upon most animal 
substances, yet it only does so by decomposing it. Ivory, 
when exposed to the alkalies, first becomes unctuous or sapo- 
naceous on its outer surface, then soft, if in thin plates, and 
it may be ultimately dissolved provided the alkali be concen- 
trated ; but it does not in any such case resume its first con- 
dition. 

Working and Polishing Ivory. — ^As a material to be worked 
oy the mechanic, ivory stands midway between wood and 
brass, and is turned and cut by tools having more obtuse 
angles than those employed for wood, and yet shar23er than 
those used for brass. It may be driven at a fair speed in the 
lathe, and is easily sawed by any saw having fine teeth. 

The tools used for cutting and turning ivory should have 
their edges very finely finished op an oil stone so that they 
may cut smoothly and cleanly. 

Turned works with plain surfaces may in general be left so 
smooth from the tool as to require but very little polishing, a 
point always aimed at with superior workmen by the employ- 
ment of sharp tools. In the polishing of turned works^ very 
fine glass pai^er or emery paper is first used, and it is rendered 
still finer and smoother by rubbing two pieces together face 
to face ; secondly, whiting and water as thick as cream is 
then applied on wash leather, linen, or cotton rag, which 
should be thin that the fingers may the more readily feel and 



78 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 

avoid the keen fillets and edges of the ivory work, that would 
be rounded by excessive polishing ; thirdly, the work is 
Avashcd with clean water, applied by the same or another 
rag ; fourthly, it is rubbed with a clean, dry cloth until all 
tJie moisture is ai)sorbed, and, lastly, a very minute quantity 
of oil or tallow is put on the rag to give a gloss. 

Scarcely any of the oil remains behind, and the apprehen- 
sion of its being absorbed by the ivory and disi>osing it to 
turn yellow may be discarded ; indeed the quantity of oil 
used is quite insignificant, and its main purjDose is to keei) 
the surfac^e of the ivory slightly lubricated, so that the rag 
may not hang to it and Aveai' it into rings or groovy marks. 
Putty i^owder is sometimes used for polishing ivory work, 
but it is more expensive and scarcely better suited than 
whiting, Avhicli is sufficiently hard for the purpose. 

The polishing of irregular surfaces is generally done with 
a moderately liard nail brush, supplied with whiting and 
water, and lightly aj^plied in all directions, to penetrate every 
interstice ; after a period the work is brushed with plain 
water and a clean brush, to remove every vestige of th(i 
V. hiting. The ivory is dried ly wijjing and pressing it with 
a clean linen or cotton rag, aud is afterwards allowed to dry 
in the air, or at a good distance from the fire ; when dry a 
gloss is given with a clean brush on which a minute droj) of 
oil is first applied. 

It is better to do too l*^fT«=^ polishing at first, so as to need 
a repetition of the procebo, xuther than by injudicious activity 
to round and obliterate all the delicate points and edges of 
the Avorks, upon the preservation of which their beauty 
mainly depends. 

Bleaching and Cleaning Ivory, — In rei)ly to the question. 
What means there are of bleaching ivory which has become 
discolored ? Holtzapfiel, the great authority on such subjects, 
tells us that he regrets to be obliged to say that he is unac- 
quainted with any of value. It is recommended in various 
popular works to scrub the ivory with Trent sand and water, 
and* similar gritty materials ; but these would only produce 
a sensible effect by the removal of the external surface of the 
material, which w^ould be fatal to objects delicately carved by 
hand or with revolving cutting instruments applied to the 
lathe. 

It is a well known fact that ivory suffers the least changes 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 79 

of color when it is exposed to the light and closely covered 
wilh a glass shade. It assumes its most nearly Avhite condi- 
tion when the oil vrith Avhich it is naturally combined is re- 
cently evaporated ; and it is the custom in some thin works, 
such as the keys of i)ianofortes, to hasten this i^eriod, by 
placing them for a few hours in an oven heated in a very 
moderate degree, although the more immediate object is to 
cause the i^ieces to shrink before they are glued uj^on the 
wooden bodies of the keys. Some persons boil the transpa- 
rent ivory in j)earl-ash and water to whiten it ; this ai)x:)ears 
to act by the superficial extraction of the oily matter as in 
bone, although it is very much better not to resort to the 
practice, which is principally employed to render that ivory 
which is partly oi^aque and partly transparent, of more nearly 
uniform appearance. It is more than probable, however, 
that the discoloration of ivory is due to the oil which it con- 
tains or has absorbed, and which becomes yellow and rancid, 
and every effort should be made to jDrevent oily or greasy 
bodies from coming in contact with ivory. Thus the keys 
of a pianoforte should be kept clean by carefully washing 
fj'om the fingers the natural grease which all skin gives out. 
"When ivory keys become very yellow they may be consider- 
ably whitened by allowing a paste of whiting, slightly 
moistened with potash, to lie on them for twenty -four hours. 
The potash extracts the oil which is absorbed by the chalk 
and may be thus removed. 

It is a well known fact that most oils and resins may bo 
bleached by exposure to sunlight. It is by this means that 
oi)ticians render Canada balsam clear and transjDarent. It 
has been found that pieces of apparatus made of ivory, such 
as rules, etc., which have become yellow by age, may be 
bleached by dipping them in turpentine and exj)osing them 
to sunlight. 

The fumes of sulphur, chloride of lime, etc., though fre- 
ijuentiy recommended, are of no value as bleachers of ivory. 

Javelle Water, 

This name was derived from the town of Javelle, in France, 
\v'here a manufactory sold a liquor w^hich had the property 
of bleaching cloth by an immersion of some hours only. The 
following is the original recipe given by Gray in his *' Oper- 
itive Chemist": 2\ lbs. common salt, 2 lbs of sulphuric 



80 THE WOUKSHOP COMPANION. 

acid, and | lb. of black manganese are mixed in a retort and 
heated, and the gas which comes over is condensed in 2 
gallons of water in which 5 lbs. of i:>otash have been dissolved. 
This liquor is diluted Avitli twelve times its bulk of water. 

This process is available only by chemists, however. The 
following gives good results : Take 4 lbs. carbonate of soda, 
and 1 lb. chloride of lime ; put the soda into a kettle, add 1 
gallon of boiling water and boil for from 10 to 15 minutes ; 
then stir in the chloride of lime, breaking dovvn all lumps 
with a wooden sj^atula or stirrer. Pour into large glass 
bottles ; when cold and settled it will be ready for use. 

This forms a very efficient bleaching liquid and one wliich 
it is not difficult to remove from the bleached fabric. Old 
and stained engravings and books, as well as linen and cotton 
goods that have become yellow with dirt and age, may be 
rendered snowy white by the application of this liquid 

Jewelry and Gilded Ware. 

Ordinary gold jewelry may be effectually cleansed by wash- 
ing with soaj) and warm v/ater, rinsing in cold water and 
drying in warm boxwood sawdust. Plain, smooth surfaces 
may be rubbed with chamois leather charged either with 
rouge or ^Drepared chalk, but the less rubbing the better. 

Silver is liable to tarnish by the action of sulphur, and 
where there is fine chased or engraved work the extreme 
delicacy of the lines may be injured by much rubbing. In 
such cases the articles may be cleaned by w^ashing with a 
solution of hyj)osulphite of soda. Cyanide of j^otassium is 
a more powerful cleansing agent but is very jDoisonous. 

In cleaning gilded v/are, different j)rocesses must be 
used for articles gilded by fire or by the galvanic jjrocess, 
and articles gilded by gold leaf, such as frames, etc. For 
cleaning articles gilded by the first-named methods, one part 
cf borax is dissolved in sixteen j)arts of water. With this 
solution the article is carefully rubbed by means of a soft 
sponge or brush, then rinsed with v/ater, and finally dried 
with a linen rag, or if small, such as a piece of jewelry, with 
boxwood sawdust. If at all convenient, the article is warmed 
previously to being rubbed, by which means the brilliancy 
of it is greatly increased. In cleaning gilded fi*ames of the 
last named order, pure water only must be employed, and the 
rubbing off of the impurities must take place by means of a 



THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION.. «1 

very slight px^'.^nre. Wares of imitation gilt are generally 
covered with f shellac or resin varnish, which w^ould be dis- 
solved 1)}^ the application of soa^^ water, alkaline solutions, 
or spirits of wine. Were the varnish rubbed off, the exceed- 
inglv thin layer of gold or silver leaf beneath would also 
disappear. In our exj^erience we have seen hundreds of once 
valuable but now worthless frames, they having become thus 
simi)ly by the ai)ijlication of soax^ water. 

Lacquer. 

Lacquer is so called because it usually contains gum lac, 
either shellac or seed lac. Seed lac is the original form of 
the gum or resin ; after being purified it is moulded into thin 
sheets, like shell, and hence is called sliellac. Shellac is 
frequently bleached so as to become quite white, in which 
state it forms a colorless solution. Bleached shellac is never 
as strong as the gum in its natural condition, and unless it 
be fresh it neither dissolves w^ell in alcohol nor does it 
preserve any metal to which it may be applied. 

There are many recipes for good lacquer, but the success 
of the operator depends quite as much upon skill as upon 
the particular recipe employed. The metal must be cleaned 
perfectly from grease and dirt, and in lacquering new work 
it is always best to lacquer as soon after polishing as possible. 
Old lacquer may be removed with a strong lye of potash or 
soda, after vvdiich the work should be well w^ashed in water, 
dried in fine beech or boxwood sawdust and j)olished with 
whiting, ai3plied with a soft brush. The condition of the 
work, as to cleanliness and polish, is perhaps the most im- 
portant i3oint in lacquering. 

The metal should be heated and the lacquer aj)plied evenly 
with a soft camel hair brush. A temperature of about that 
of boiling water w^ill be found right. 

The solution of lac or varnish is colored to suit the require- 
ments or taste of the user. 

A good pale lacquer consists of three parts of Cape aloes 
and one of turmeric to one of simple lac varnish. A full 
yellow contains four of turmeric and one of annatto to one of 
lac varnish. A gold lacquer, four of dragon's-blood and one 
of turmeric to one of lac varnish. A red, thirty -two parts of 
annatto and eight of dragon's-blood to one of lac varnish. 

A great deal depends, also, upon the depth of color im,- 



82 THE WORKSHOP C'OMPAKION. 

parted to the lacquer, and as this may require to be varied, 
a very good plan is to make up a small stock bottle, holding, 
say, half a pint, according to any good recipe, and add as 
much of it to the varnish as mav be required for the desired 
tint. 

The following are a few favorite recijies : 

Ueep Gold Lacquer. — ^Alcohol, \ pint ; dragon's-blood, 1 
drachm ; seed lac, 1^ oz. ; turmeric, i oz. Shake up well for 
a week, at intervals of, say, a couple of hours ; then allow to 
settle, and decant the clear lacquer ; and if at all dirty filter 
through a tuft of cotton wool. This lacquer may be diluted 
with a simple solution of shellac in alcohol and will then give 
a T)aler tint. 

Bright Gold Lacquer, — 1. Turmeric, 1 oz. ; safiron I oz. ; 
Spanish annatto, i oz. ; alcohol, 1 pint. Digest at a gentle 
heat for several days ; strain through coarse linen ; put the 
tincture in a bottle and add 3 oz. good seed lac coarsely 
powdered. Let it stand for several days, shaking occasion- 
ally. Allow to settle and use the clear liquid. 

2. Take 1 oz. annatto and 8 oz. alcohol. Mix in a bottle 
by themselves. Also mix separately 1 oz. gamboge and 8 oz. 
alcohol. "With these mixtures color seed lac varnish to suit 
yourself. If it be too red add gamboge ; if too yellow add 
annatto ; if the color be too deep, add spirit. In this manner 
you may color brass of any desired tint. 

Pale Gold Lacquer. — Best pale shellac (picked pieces), 8 oz. ; 
sandarac, 2 oz. ; turmeric, 8 oz. ; annatto, 2 oz. ; dra-gon's-blood, 
i oz. ; alcohol, 1 gallon. Mix, shake frequently till the gums 
are dissolved and the color extracted from the coloring 
raatters and then allow to settle. 

Lacquer used by A. Boss. — 4 oz. shellac and i oz. gamboge 
are dissolved by agitation, without heat, in 24 oz. pure pyro- 
acetic ether. The solution is allowed to stand until the 
gummy matters, not taken up by the spirit, subside. The 
clear liquor is then decanted, and when required for use is 
mixed with 8 times its quantity of alcohol. In this case the 
pyro-acetic ether is emj)loyed for dissolving the shellac in 
order to prevent any but the purely resinous poiiions being- 
taken up, which is almost certain to occur with ordinary 
alcohol ; but if the lacquer were made entirely with pyro- 
acetic ether, the latter would evaporate too rapidly to allow 
time for the lacquer to be equally applied. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 83 

Lacquers sufifer a chemical change hy heat and light, and 
must, therefore, be kept in a cool place and in dark vessels. 
The pans used should be either of glass or earthenware, and 
the brushes cf camel's hair with no metal fittings. 

Laundry Gloss. 

Various recii^es have been given for imparting a fin^ glos.«^ 
to linen. Gum arable, white w^ax, spermaceti, etc. , have all 
been highly recommended, and are, no doubt, useful to a 
certain extent, but the great secret seems to lie in the quality 
of the iron used and the skill of the laundress. If the iron is 
hard, close grained and finely polished, the work w411 be 
much easier. Laundresses always have a favorite smoothing 
iron with which they do most of their work, and many of 
them have the front edge of the iron rounded so that great 
pressure can be brought to bear on a very small spot instead 
of being sjDread over a space the size of the whole face of the 
iron. If smoothing irons have become rough and rusty it 
wdll pay to send them to a grinder to have them not only 
gi-ound but buffed (see aritcle on Polishing Metals). Tbe 
greatest care should be taken not to allow them to get spotted 
with rust, and they should never be ** brightened " with 
coarse sand, ashes, emery, etc. If it is necessary to polish 
them, rub them on a board, or preferably a piece of leather 
charged with the finest flour of emery, obtained by washing, 
or better still, jew^eller's rouge. 

Leaves— Skeleton. 

The following is a simple method of preparing skeleton 
leaves, and is decidedly preferable to the old and tedious 
method of maceration, as it is quite as efficient and not at all 
offensive. First dissolve four ounces of common w^ashing 
soda in a quart of boiling w^ater, then add two ounces of 
slaked quicklime and boil for about fifteen minutes. Allow 
the solution to cool : afterwards pour off all the clear liquor 
into a clean saucepan. When this liquor is at its boiiing 
heat place the leaves carefully in the pan, and boil the whole 
together for an hour, adding from time to time enough water 
to make up for the loss by evaporation. The epidermis and 
23arenchyma of some leaves will more readily separate than 
others. A good test is to try the leaves after they have been 
gently boiling for an hour, and if the cellular matter does not 
easily rub off betvv ixt the finger and thumb beneath cold 



84 THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 

Water, boil them again for a short time. When the fleshj 
matter is found to be sufficiently softened, rub them sepa- 
rately but very gently beneath cold water until the perfect 
skeleton is exposed. 

The skeletons, at first, are of a dirty white color ; to make 
them of a pure white, and therefore more beautiful, all that 
is necessary is to bleach them in a weak solution of chloride 
of lime — a large teaspoonful of chloride of lime to a quart of 
water ; if a few droits of vinegar are added to the solution it 
is all the better, for then the free chlorine is liberated. Do 
not allow them to remain too long in the bleaching liquor, 
or they will become too brittle, and cannot afterwards be 
handled without injury. About fifteen minates will be suf- 
ficient to make them white and clean looking. Dry the speci- 
mens in white blotting paper, beneath a gentle pressure. 
Simple leaves are the best for young beginners to experiment 
on ; the vine, poplar, beach and ivy leaves make excellent 
skeletons. Care must be exercised in the selection of leaves, 
as well as the period of the year and the state of the atmo- 
sphere when the specimens are collected ; otherwise, failure 
wdll be the result. The best months to gather the specimens 
are July and August. Never collect specimens in damp 
weather, and none but perfectly matured leaves ought to be 
selected. 

Lights— Signal and Colored. 

The following reci]3es are from the United States Ordnance 
Manupcl, and may be considered reliable. . The composition 
for signal lights is i)acked in shallow vessels of large diame- 
ter so as to expose considerable surface. Where the burning 
surface is large, the light attains great intensity, but the ma- 
terial burns out rapidly. In arranging the size and shape of 
the case, therefore, regard must be had to the time the light 
is expected to burn and the brilliancy that is wanted. [See 
caution at end of this article.] 

Bengal Light. — Antimony, 2 ; sulphur, 4 ; mealed powder, 
4 ; nitrate of soda, 16. 

Blue. — Black sulphuret of antimony, 1 ; sulphur, 2 ; pure 
nitre, 6. Grind to a very line ]30wder and mix thoroughly. 
See that the nitre is jDerfectly dry. This composition gives 
a bluish white light ; a deeper blue may be had by the addi- 
tion of a little finely pulverized zinc. 



THE WOIIKSHOP COIJ^IPANION. 85 

f 

Red. — 1. Saltpetre, 5 ; sulphur, 6 ; nitrate of strontia, 20 ; 
lamjDlDlack, 1. 

2. Nitrate of strontia, 20 ; chlorate of i)otassa, 8 ; Sulphur, 
6 ; charcoal, 1. 

White. — Saltpetre, 16 ; sulphur, 8 ; mealed powder, 4. 
Grind to a very fine powder and mix well. 

The following have been very highly recommended : 

Cr 17)180)1 Fire. — Sulphide of antimony, 4 ; chlorate of po- 
tassa, 5 ; powdered roU brimstone, 13 ; dry nitrate of strontia, 
4:0 parts. 

A very little charcoal added to the above makes it bum 
quicker. 

Gree)i Fire. — Fine charcoal, 3 ; sulphur, 13 ; chlorate of 
potassa, 8 ; nitrate of baryta, 77. 

White. — 1. Nitrate of potassa (saltpetre), 24 ; sulphur 7 ; 
charcoal, 1. 

2. Nitre, 6 ; sulphur, 2 ; yellow sulphuret of arsenic, 1. 
[Note. — This light is a very brilliant one and a very pure 
white, but the fumes are highly j)oisonous. It should be 
used only in the oj)en air and the wind should blow the 
vapors away from the spectators — not towards them.] 

3. Chlorate of potash, 10 ; nitre, 5 ; lycopodium, 3 ; char- 
coal 2. 

4. Metallic magnesium in the form of ribbon or wire. This 
is the best and most easily used. It may be purchased of 
most dealers in chemicals. A few inches of magnesium rib- 
bon coiled into a spiral (like a spiral sx3ring) and ignited. by 
means of a spirit lam^D, or even by a little tuft of cotton 
soaked in alcohol and fii-ed with a lucifer match, makes a 
light of surpassing brilliancy and power. It requires a slight 
knack to ignite the ribbon. Hold the end of it steadily in 
the outer edge of the flame and it will soon take fire. The 
light given out by a small ribbon of magnesium is clearly 
visible at a distance of thirty miles. 

Lights for Indoor Illuminatio)is. — Many of the above are 
unfit for indoor exhibitions owing to the amount of sul- 
phurous gas given off. For tableaux in churches, schools 
and private houses, the best light is undoubtedly magnesium 
or, where it can be had, the lime light (sometimes, though 
ei*roneously, called the calcium light). Both of these lights 
are very powerful, and any color may be obtained by the 
use of pieces of differently colored glass. A very effective 



86 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION 

arrangement consists of a tin box, wliicli may "be made out 
of one of those cases in which crackers are imported. Pro 
cure good-sized j)ieces of red and blue glass, the red being a 
soft, warm tint, such as wdll add a richness to the complex- 
ions of those upon Avhom the light is thrown. Arrange one 
end of the tin box so that these glasses may be slipped over 
a large hole in it. The oi^iDOsite end of the box should be 
highly polished &o as to act as a reflector, and a hole should 
be cut in one side so as to allow of the introduction of the 
magnesium. 

In every case the burning matter should be so shaded 
that it may not be seen by the audience. If the direct light 
from the burning body meets the eyes of the spectators the 
reflected light from the objects composing the tableau will 
have no effect. 

Where arrangements for lime or magnesium lights cannot 
be made, the following may be used. 

White. — Chlorate of potash, 12 ; nitre, 5 ; finely powdered 
loaf sugar, 4 ; lycoi3odium 2. 

Gh^een. — Nitrate of baryta, shellac and chlorate of potassa, 
all finely powdered, equal parts by bulk. 

Red. — Nitrate of strontia, shellac and chlorate of potassa, 
all finely powdered, equal parts by bulk. 

The brilliancy of these fires will depend largely upon the 
thoroughness wdth which the materials are finely powdered 
and mixed. [See caution at end of this aiiicle.] 

Braunschweizer recommends the foUowmg formulae as 
giving excellent results, the lights being good without pro- 
ducing injurious fumes : 

Bed. — Nitrate of strontia, 9 ; shellac, 3 ; chlorate of pot- 
assa, 1^. 

Gi^een. — ^Nitrate of baryta, 9 ; shellac, 3 ; chlorate of pot- 
assa, 1^. 

'Blue. — Ammoniacal sulphate of copi)er, 8; chlorate of 
potassa, 6; shellac, 1. 

The Pharmacist gives the following formula for ** Red 
Fire," which will not evolve sulphurous acid during com- 
bustion : nitrate of strontia, 1 lb. ; chlorate of potassa, i lb. ; 
shellac, I lb. 

These ingredieui^s must be thoroughly dried, powdered 
separately, and carefully mixed by gentle stirring. 

Ghosts, Demons, Sjpectres and Murderers, — To give a ghastly 



THE WOBESHOP COMPANION. 87 

hue to the faces of the actors, the best light is that produced 
by some salt of soda, common salt being very good. We 
have succeeded well in this way : A piece of wire gauze su(-li 
as ash-sifters are made of, and about a foot square, was sui)- 
ported at a height of about a foot from the floor, which was 
protected by a sheet of iron. On the wire gauze were laid 
twenty-five wads of cotton waste which had been soaked in a 
solution of common salt, dried and dipped in alcohol just 
before being laid on the wire. When these were ignited v^e 
had twenty -five powerful flames all tinged with sodium and 
burning freely, as the air rose readily among them through 
the wire grating. Such a flame produces quite a powerful 
light and gives a death-like a^Dpearance to even the most 
rosy-cheeked girl. 

The following give a strong light and produce a most 
ghastly effect: 

1. Nitrate of soda, 10 ; chlorate of potash, 10 ; sulphide of 
antimony, 3 ; shellac, 4. The materials must be warm and 
dry, and as the nitrate of soda attracts moisture rapidly, it 
must be w^ell dried, then finely powdered as quickly as pos- 
sible and kept in well-corked bottles. As this gives off' a 
good deal of sulphurous fumes, the following may be pre- 
ferred where the ventilation is not good : 

2. Nitrate of soda, 10 ; chlorate of potassa, 15 ; white 
sugar finely powdered, 5 ; lycoi^odium, 2. 

CAUTION. 

In using chlorate of j)otassa the greatest care is necessary. 
It may be powdered and otherwise handled safely when 
alone, but when combustible matter of any kind is added to 
it, the mixture becomes highly explosive and must be very 
gently handled. It must therefore be powdered separatelt/ 
and only mixed with the other ingredients after they havo 
been powdered. The mixing should be done on a large sheet 
of paper, very gently, but very thoroughly, with a thin, 
broad-bladed knife. 

Mixtures of chlorate of potash with sulphur, sulphurets, 
and especially phosphorous, are liable to explode spontane- 
ously after a time, and should never be kept on hand. They 
should be made as wanted. 

Flowers of sulphur are very liable to contain a trace of 
sulx^huric or sulphurous acid, which, acting upon chlorate of 



89 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

potasli causes spontaneous ignition. This may be obviated 
hj ponring a few drops of liquid ammonia on the sulphur, 
mixing it up thorouglilj and allowing it to stand for some 
time. A safe way also is to use powdered roll brimstone 
instead of flowers of sulphur. 

Phosphorous Light.— One of the most brilliant lights known 
is produced by burning phosphorous in oxygen. The api3a- 
ratus usually employed for this purpose is bulky and expen- 
sive, but the following is a very simple method of i)roducing 
a very intense light by the combustion of phosphorous : 
Take an amount of nitre proportional to the desired intensity 
and duration of the light required, dry it thoroughly, powder 
it and jpack it solidly in an earthen vessel, leaving a small 
cup-like hollow in its upper surface. In this hollow jDlace a 
piece of phosphorous which has been carefully dried with 
soft paper or rags and set it on fire. As the phosphorous 
burns, the nitre melts, decomposes and furnishes it with pure 
oxygen, and the resulting light is very brilliant. 

Note. — In handling phosphorous be very careful. Do not 
touch it with the hands or ruh it with the article used to 
dry it, as it takes fire very easily, and the burns produced by 
it are very severe. It should always be cut under water. 

Photographic Light. — A light of intense photographic 
power is j)i*ocluced by burning bisulphide of carbon in an 
argand lamp and passing a stream of nitric oxide through the 
centre of the flame Nitric oxide is easily j)i*oduced as 
wanted by allowing nitric acid to act on scraps of copper. 

The following siDCcific dir:"^tions wdll enable the reader to 
produce this light in a less simple but more effective manner : 
A quart bottle with a somewhat large mouth, has a cork 
with two openings. Through one of these a tube passes to 
near the bottom of the bottle ; through the second a large 
tube packed with iron scale issues. Fragments of pumice 
till the bottle, and on these carbon disuljjhide is poured. A 
current of nitric oxide gas, prepared by Deville's method — 
by the action of nitric and sulj)huric acids on metallic iron 
contained in a self-regulating reservoir — is passed through 
the bottle, where it takes uj) the vapor of the disulphide. It 
is then led through the safety-tube, packed with iron-scale, to 
a gas burner of the required capacity Excellent photo- 
graphs have been taken in five seconds with this light, the 
object being six feet distant. In photographic power tho 



THE WORI iHOP COMPANION. 89 

light is asserted to "be superior to the magnesium or calcium 
light, and eyen to surpass the electric light itself. The 
products of combustion are noxious and must be gotten 
rid of. 

Chatham Light. — This is a most intense flash-light used for 
aiilitarj signals. Three ijarts finely powdered resin are 
mixed with one part magnesium dust, and blown by means 
of a tube through the flame of a spirit lamp. The flame should 
be large so as to insure the ignition of all the dust. The dis- 
tance at which such a flame can be seen is extraordinary. 

Some years ago the author devised a method of producing a 
light of marvellous brilliancy by the use of magnesium 
powder. A rude argand spirit lamp w^as constructed in such 
a way that the central tube could be connected in an air-tight 
fashion with a reservoir of oxygen. A small stopcock, with 
the hole of the plug closed at one side so as to leave a cup 
instead of a hole, was fitted into the tube leading from the 
oxygen reservoir to the lamp. When turned upward this 
cup was easily filled with magnesium powder, and when 
turned down it of course dropped its charge into the stream 
of oxygen, which carried it at once to the lamp, there to be 
consumed in a flash of extraordinary brilliancy. 

Looking Glass. {See Mirrors,) 

Lubricators. 

In selecting a lubricator for any rubbing surfaces, care must 
be taken to adapt the character of the lubricating material to 
the nature of the rubbing surfaces and the weight which they 
have to sustain. A fine, thin oil is useless for heavy bearings, 
and a hard, stiff soaj), which w^ould be excellent for such 
bearings, would be a poor article for a very light j^iece of 
machinery. In the case of heavy bearings, such as railway 
«j..xles, when they once begin to heat and cut, it will be found 
impossible to prevent heating by the mere aj)i)lication of oil. 
The surfaces of the metal must be worked over eitlier by 
grinding or the turning tool. Thus, when journals heat at 
sea, the usual custom is to use sulphur, black-lead, or w^ater ; 
but the relief they afibrd is only temporary. The following 
is a method that gives permanent relief : When you find the 
journals getting hot, slack back the nuts on the cajD from 
oiie-q.uarter to one-third of a turn^ and suj^ply the journal 



90 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

freely with dust procured by rubbing two Bath bricks to- 
gether, mixed in oil to a consistency a little thinner than 
c^ream. After a short time begin cautiously to set up on the 
nuts ; and before finally bringing the nuts to their original 
]>osition, give a copious supply of oil alone to wash out the 
journal ; then bring the nuts into position, and you will have 
no further trouble. This plan has also been tried on railway 
journals, and it has been found that a handful of clay or 
gravel has effected that which gallons of oil and water could 
not do. 

In addition to the usual oils and grease the following lu- 
bricators deserve attention : 

1. Plumbago. — This material ir gradually coming into use, 
and when properly selected and applied it never fails to give 
satisfactory results. It may be used on the heaviest planers 
and ocean steamers, or on the lightest watch work. When 
applied to delicate machinery the surfaces should be very 
lightly coated with the plumbago by means of a brush. In 
this way all danger of grit is avoided. Plumbago seems to 
be specially adapted to diminish the friction between porous 
surfaces, such as wood and cast iron. Por the cast iron beds 
of heavy planers it is a specific. 

2. Anti-Attrition. — Mix 4 lbs. tallow or soap with 1 lb. 
finely ground plumbago. The best lubricator for wood 
Avorking on wood. Excellent for wooden screws where great 
power is required. 

3. Fine Luhricaiing Oil. — Put fine olive oil in a bottle with 
scrapings of lead and expose it to the sun for a few weeks. 
Pour off the clear oil for use. Another method is to freeze 
^Vi^Q olive oil, strain out the liquid portion and preserve for use. 

Booth's Axle Grease. — Dissolve ^ lb. Avashing soda in 1 
gallon water and add 3 lbs. tallow and 6 lbs. ]3alm oil. Heat 
to 210^ Fahr., and keep constantly stirring until cooled 
to 60^ or 70^. 

Marble. 

Marble is a compact carbonate of lime which varies in color, 
some specimens being pure white, others perfectly black, 
while others are green, red, veined, mottled, etc. The famous 
Mexican onyx, so-called, is also a carbonate of lime, and not- 
withstanding its hardness and beauty is liable to injury fx'OHi 
the same causes that affect ordinary marble. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 91 

Marble is ea»silj dissolved, with escape of carbonic acid 
gas, by the mineral acids, sulj^huric, nitric, hydrochloric, 
etc., and it is also acted upon, though more slowly by vinegar, 
the acids of fruit, etc. It is also soluble in water containing 
an excess of carbonic acid, and therefore dissolves rapidly in 
the ordinary "soda" water that is so generally sold as a 
beverage, for this fluid, in its i^ure state, consists solely of 
water liolding a large amount of carbonic acid in solution. 
Consequently bottles and glasses of this liquid should not be 
placed where there is any danger of siDilling it on mantel 
pieces, table l^yps, etc., as it will infallibly destroy the ex- 
quisite polish upon which the beauty of such articles of 
furniture depends. 

Finely carved articles of marble, when exposed to the rain 
of our northern climates, are apt to suffer corrosion, and the 
delicate tracery of the sculptor is soon lost. Therefore, 
while marble answered very well in the comparatively dry 
climates of Greece and Egypt, itisunsuited for statues, etc., 
exjDOsed to the o]3en air, in England and America, the rainfall 
in these countries being very great, and the moisture hea^dly 
charged with carbonic and sulphurous acids. 

In cleaning marble ornaments, etc., great care must be ex- 
ercised to use nothing corrosive like acids, chlorides, or 
metallic salts, such as are usually recommended for removing 
stains of inks and dyes from wood and textile fabrics. When 
marble has been stained by ink or vegetable coloring matter, 
the only way to remove it is to apply warm water abundantly 
and for a long time. If the marble is very compact, and the 
stain consequently quite superficial, the article may be 
scraped and repolished, but of course this is applicable only 
to objects which have plane surfaces, or those with simple 
curves. Elaborately carved or sculi^tured objects could not 
be so treated. 

Greasy stains may be removed by covering them with a 
paste of chalk and potash or soda. The alkali Vv'ill convert 
the grease into soap, which will be gradually absorbed by the 
chalk and thus removed. In such cases, however, the stains, 
es23ecially if old, may require a long time and several repeti- 
tions of the process. Alkalies (potash, soda and ammonia) 
may be applied to marble vritliout injuring it, and any stains 
which they can remove may be taken out by their means. 

Marble 19 easily wgrke^I either on the bench or in the lath--; 



92 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 

In the latter case, however, great care must be taken to avoid 
anything like a heavy cut, since marble is so rigid and brittle 
that if the cut be heavy the article is apt to be broken. The 
only tool that can be used is a steel point, tempered to a 
straw color. The tool requires frequent grinding, and when 
it gets broad it must be forged over again, as a fiat tool will 
not turn marble at all. 

For working and finishing marble on the bench the follow- 
ing is the process : After the marble is sawn into slab, the 
first operation is to grind it down with a flat coarse sandstone 
and water, or with an iron plate, fed with fine sand and water, 
until all the marks of the saw are perfectly removed ; 
secondly, a fine sandstone is used with water until the 
marks made by the first stone are removed; thirdly, a 
finer sandstone is applied to work out the marks of the 
former ; fourthly, pumice stone with water, and fifthly, snake 
stone is used, and this last finishes what is called the 
grounding. 

Next comes the polishing, which is principally performed 
with rollers of v>^oolen cloth or list made to the size of about 
three inches diameter. As the sixth process, a rubber is 
charged with flour emery and a moderate degree of moisture ; 
this rubber is worked uniformly over every part until the 
marble acquires a kind of greasy polish; seventhly, the work 
is completed with a similar roll of cloth charged with putty 
powder and water. Some prefer, as the polisher, an old 
cotton stocking not made into a rubber, and in some few of the 
more delicate works crocus is used intermediately between 
the emery and the putty powder. It is necessary to wash 
the marble after each operation, so that not a particle of the 
previous polishing material may remain, otherwise the work 
will be scratched. 

The dull parts of sculpture are finished in four different 
manners, or rather the complete process of smoothing is dis- 
continued at various stages so as to form four gradations, 
which may be described as follows : 

First. — The marble is sometimes left from the long and 
very slender statuary's chisel, the reverse end of which is 
formed with a sharp circular edge or ridge, just like a hollow 
centre, in order that the metal hammer, which is of soft iron, 
tin or zinc, may be slightly indented by the chisel, so as to 
avoid its glancing off ; the chisel marks leo-ve the surface 



THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 93 

somewhat rougli and matted, intermediate between the 
granular and crystalline character. 

Secondly. — For surfaces somewhat smoother, rasps are used 
to remove the ridges left by the chisel ; the rasps leave a 
striated or lined effect suitable for draperies, and which is 
made more or less regular according to the uniformity of the 
strokes, or the reverse. 

Tliirdlif. — Files are employed for still smoother surfaces of 
the same character ; and it is to be observed that the files 
and rasps are generally curved at the ends, to adapt them to 
the curvilinear forms of the sculpture. 

Fourthly. — For the smoothest of the dull or uniDolished 
surfaces, the faint marks left by the file are rubbed out with 
Trent sand or silver sand and water, applied by means of a 
stick of deal cut to a ]point, and rubbed all over the work in 
little irregular circles, as a child would scribble on a slate, 
and if the end of the stick is covered with tv/o or three 
thicknesses of cloth the marble receives a still rounder or 
softer effect than from the naked stick, for which the cabbage 
wood or partridge wood is sometimes used, and the end of the 
stick is slightly bruised, so that the fibres of the w^ood may 
assume the character of the stiff brush, known by artists as a 
scrub. 

Mr. Thomas Smith tells us that he has successfully copied 
the minute roughness or granulation of the skin, by a kind of 
etching w^hich he was induced to try, by imagining that he 
could trace such a process to have been used in some of the 
most perfect of the ancient marbles that had not been exposed 
to the open air. The work having been smoothed Avith sand, 
as above, he takes a hard, stubby brush and therewith dots 
the marble with muriatic acid, and which quickly, yet par- 
tially, dissolves the surface. The strength of the acid, which 
must not be excessive, is tested upon a piece of waste marble; 
the brush is hastily dipped in the acid, applied to the work, 
quickly rinsed in water, and then used for removing the acid 
from the marble. It is obvious the process calls for a certain 
admixture of dexterity and boldness, and sometimes requires 
several repetitions, the process occu^jying only a few minutes 
each time. 

Fifthly. — The bright parts of sculpture. Few of the works 
in sculpture are polished, and such as are, are required in the 
first iustauce to pass through the four stages already explaiued 



94 THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 

for producing the smooth but dull surface ; after "which, 
slender square pieces of the second gritstone and of snake- 
stone are used with water as a pencil, and then fine emerj 
and putty powder on sticks of wood ; but the work is exceed- 
ingly tedious, and requires very great care, that the artistical 
character of the work, and any keen edges that may be re- 
quired are not lost in the polishing. 

Metals— Polishing. 

Metals are polished either by burnishing or buffing. The 
process ot burnishing consists in rubbing down all the minute 
roughnesses by means of a highly ]3olished steel or agate 
tool — none of the metal being removed. 

The action of the burnisher appears to dex)end upon two 
circumstances ; first, that the harder the material to be 
polished the greater lustre it will receive ; the burnisher is, 
therefore, commonly made of hardened steel, which exceeds in 
hardness nearly every metallic body. And secondly, its 
action depends on the intimacy of the contact betwixt the 
burnisher and the work ; and the pressure of the brightened 
burnisher being, in reality, from its rounded or elliptical 
section, exerted upon only one mathematical line or point of 
the work at a time, it acts Avith great pressure and in a man- 
ner distinctly analogous to the steel die used in making coin; 
in which latter case the dull but smooth blank becomes in- 
stantly the bright and lustrous coin, in virtue of the intimate 
contact produced in the coining' press between the entire 
surface of the blank and that of the highly x^olished die. 

It by no means follows, however, that the burnisher will 
produce highly finished surfaces, unless they have been pre- 
viously rendered smooth, and proper for the application of 
this instrument, as a rough surface, having any file marks or 
scratches, will exhibit the original defects, notwithstanding 
that they may be glossed over Avitli the burnisher vrhich 
foUovrs every irregularity ; and excessive pressure, which 
might be exj^ected to correct the evil as in coining, only fills 
the work with furrows, or produces an irregular indented - 
surface, which by workmen is said to he full of utte^^s. 

Therefore, the greater the degree of excellence that is re- 
quired in burnished works, the more carefully should they 
be smoothed before the application of the burnisher, and this 
t'OPl ^^hould ^Iso bQ cleaiied oii ^ buff stick mill crociis im- 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 95 

mediately before use ; and it should in general be applied 
with the least degree of friction that will suffice. Cutlers 
mostly consider that burnishers for steel are best rubbed on 
a buff stick with the finest flour emery ; for silver, however, 
they polish the burnisher with crocus as usual. Most of the 
metals, j)reviously to their being burnished, are rubbed with 
oil to lessen the risk of tearing or scratching them, but for 
gold and silver the burnisher is commonly used dry, unless 
soap and water or skimmed milk are employed ; and for 
brass furniture, beer or water, with or without a little vinegar, 
is preferred for lubricating the burnisher. 

I3uffing is performed by rubbing the metal with soft leather, 
which has been charged with very fine polishing powder. 
The rubbing is sometimes done by hand, but more frequently 
the buff is made into a wheel which revolves rapidly in a 
lathe and the work is held against it. 

The polishing powder that is selected must be chosen with 
special reference to the metal that is to be buffed. Thus, for 
steel and brass the best i3olishing powder is crocus or rouge, 
which may be purchased of any dealer in tools, or may be 
made by exposing very clean and pure crystals of sulphate of 
iron to heat, according to the directions given hereafter under 
the head of Polishing Powders. The hardest part of the 
rouge must be selected, and great care must be taken to have 
it clean and free from particles of dust and sand, which would 
inevitably scratch the article to be polished and render it 
necessary to again repeat all the previous processes of filing, 
grinding, etc. 

Soft metals like gold and silver may be polished with com- 
paratively soft powders, such as prepared chalk or putty 
powder (oxide of tin). 

When metals are to be polished in the lathe the jDrocess is 
very simple. After being turned or filed smooth the article 
is still further polished by means of ^i\q emery and oil, ap- 
plied with a stick, and in the case of rods or cylinders, a sort of 
clamp is used so that great pressure can be brought to bear 
on the part to be polished. The work must be exammed 
from time to time to see that all parts are brought up equally 
to the greatest smoothness and freedom from scratches, and 
as fast as this occurs polishing powder of finer and finer 
quality is used, until the required finish is attained. 

Ib polishing metals or any other hard substances \>j 



96 THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 

abrasion, tlie great point is to bring the whole surface up 
equally. A single scratch will destroy the appearance of the 
finest work, and it cannot be removed except by going back 
to the stage to which it corresponds, and beginning again 
from that point. Thus, if in working with a smooth file we 
make a scratch as deep as the cut of a bastard file, it is of 
no use to try and remove this scratch with the smooth file, 
we must go back, and taking a bastard file make the surface 
as even as possible with it, and afterwards work forward 
through fine files and polishing powders. 

Mirrors. 

As it is frequently convenient to be able to silver a piece of 
glass for a special purpose, we quote from Faraday's work on 
Chemical Manipulation, the following directions for perform- 
ing this operation : 

A piece of clean, smooth tinfoil, free from holes, is to be 
cut to the same size as the glass and laid upon a couple of 
sheets of filtering or blotting 23aper folded into quarters. A 
little mercury is to be placed on the foil, and rubbed over it 
with a hare's foot, or vfitli a ball of cotton slightly greased 
with tallov^, until the whole of the upper surface of the leaf 
be amalgamated and bright. More mercury is then to be 
added, until the quantity is such as to fioat over the tinfoil. 
A piece of clean writing paper, with smooth edges, is to be 
laid upon the mercury, and then the glass surface, previously 
well cleaned, is to be applied to the pax3er. The i^aper is to 
be drawn out from between the mercury and the glass, while 
a slight but steady pressure is to be applied to the latter. 
As the paper recedes it carries all air and dirt with it from 
between the glass and the metal, which come into perfect 
contact. 

The mirror is now made, and may be used for an experi- 
ment ; but there is still much more mercury present than is 
required to make the definite and hard amalgam of tin con- 
stituting the usual reflecting surface. If it be desired to re- 
move this excess, the nev/ly-formed mirror must be put under 
the pressure of a fia,t board, in a slightly -inclined position, 
and loaded with weights. 

The success of this operation will be found to depend 
chiefly upon the care exercised in cleaning the glass. 

iSilvm'inff Glass Mirrors for Optioal Purposes. — This is b§st 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 97 

eifected by depositing pure silver on the glass. Tlie light 
reflected from a mirror made thus has somewhat of a yellowish 
tinge, but photometric experiments show that from 25 to 30 
per cent, more light is reflected than from the old mercurial 
mirrors. 

Where ammonium aldehyde can be obtained, there is no 
doubt that this is the best and most economical process, 
whether used on a large or a small scale. But those who 
have not had considerable experience in the laboratory can- 
not always prepare this compound. 

The next berst process is based upon the reduction of 
metallic silver from its ammoniacal solution by salts of tartar. 
After a trial of several formulai of this kind, all of them more 
or less simple, as well as eflieacious, the following has been 
found to yield the best results in the shortest time. 

Silvering Solution. — In 1 ounce of distilled or pure rain 
water, dissolve 48 grains of crystalized nitrate of silver. 
Precipitate by adding strongest water of ammonia, and con- 
tinue to add the ammonia drop by drop, stirring the solution 
with a glass rod, until the brown precipitate is nearly, but 
not quite redissolved. Filter, and add distilled w^ater to 
make 12 fluid drachms. 

Eeducing Solution. — Dissolve in 1 ounce of distilled or 
very clean rain water, 12 grains of potassium and sodium 
tartrate (Eochelle or Seignette salts). Boil, in a flask, and 
while boiling add 2 grains crystalized nitrate of silver dis- 
solved in 1 drachm of water. Continue the boiling Ave or 
six minutes. Let cool, filter, and add distilled water to make 
12 fluid drachms. 

To Silver. — Provision must be made for supporting the 
glass in a perfectly horizontal position at the surface of the 
liquid. Tills is best done by cementing to the face of the 
mirror three nice hooks by which it may be hung from a 
temporary framework — easily made out of a few^ sticks. 

The glass to be silvered must be cleansed by immersing 
it in strong nitric acid, washing in liquor potassse, and thor- 
oughly rinsing with distilled water. If the glass has had 
mercurial amalgam on it, it wdll probably be necessary to 
clean the back with rouge. On having this surface per- 
fectly, chemically clean, dex3ends in a great measure the suc- 
cess of the operation. 

Having arranged the contrivance for suspending the glass 



93 THE woukshop companion. 

so that it may be at exactly tlio right height in the vessel 
that is to receive the solution, remove this vessel and pour 
into it enough of equal quantities of the two solutions to fill 
it exactly to the previously ascertained level. Stir the solu- 
tions so that they will become thoroughly mixed, and replace 
the glass to be silvered, taking great care that the surface to 
be silvered shall come in contact with the silvering fluid ex- 
actly at all points. The glass ]3late should be rinsed carefully 
l)ef ore rej)lacing, and should be put in while wet. Great care 
should be taken that no air bubbles remain on the surface of 
the solution, or betAveen it and the surface to be silvered. 

Now set the vessel in the sun for a few minutes, if the 
weather be warm, or by the fire, if it be cold, as a tempera- 
ture of 45^ to 50^ C. (113° to 122° Fah.) is most conducive 
to the rapid deposition of a brilliant, firm and even film of 
silver. The fluid in the sunlight soon becomes inky black, 
gradually clearing as the silver is reduced, until when ex- 
hausted it is perfectly clear. The mirror should be removed 
before this point is reached, as a process of bleaching sets 
up if left after the fluid is exhausted. From 20 to 80 minutes, 
according to the w^eather, purity of chemicals, etc., is re- 
quired for the entire process. 

When the mirjor is removed from the bath, it should be 
carefully rinsed with distilled water from the wash bottle, 
and laid on its edge on blotting paper to dry. \Yhen per- 
fectly dry, the back should be varnished Avith some elastic 
varnish and allowed to dry. The wires and cement can now 
be removed from the face, and the glass cleaned with a little 
fledget of cotton and a minute drop of nitric acid, taking 
great care that the acid does not get to the edges or under 
the varnish. Binse, dry and the mirror is finished. 

Silver" Amalgam for Mirrors. — The great objections to 
mirrors coated wdth pure silver are the yellow character of 
the reflected light, and the fact that such mirrors are apt to 
be afiected by sulphur. M. Lenoir has invented a process 
which is said to avoid these difiiculties. The glass is first 
silvered by means of tartaric acid and ammoniacal nitrate of 
silver, or \yj the process described in the preceding section, 
and is then exposed to the action of a weak solution of double 
cyanide of mercury and potassium. When the mercurial 
solution has spread uniformly over the surface, fine zinc dust 
is powdered over it, which promptly reduces the quicksilver, 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 99 

And permits it to form a white and brilliant silver amalgam, 
adhering strongly to the glass, and which is affirmed to be 
free from the yellowish tint of ordinary silvered glass, and 
not easily affected by sulphurous emanations. 

Care of Looking Glasses, — ^When looking glasses are ex- 
posed to the direct rays of the sun or to very strong heat 
from a fire the amalgam is apt to crystallize and the mirror 
loses its brilliancy. If a mirror is jjlaced where the rays of 
th^ sun can strike it, it should be covered in that part of the 
day during Avliich it is exposed. 

The best method of cleaning looking glasses is as follows : 
Take a newspaper, fold it small, dip it into a basin of clean 
cold water. When thoroughly wet squeeze it out as you do 
a sj)onge ; then rub it pretty hard all over the surface of the 
glass, taking care that it is not so wet as to run down in 
streams ; in fact, the paper must only be completely moist- 
ened or damjDened all through. Let it rest a few minutes, 
then go over the glass with a piece of fresh newsjDaper till it 
looks clear and bright. The insides of windovv's may be 
cleaned in the same way; also spectacle-glasses, lamj^-glasses, 
etc. White 23ai)er that has not been printed on is better; 
but in the absence of that, a very old newspaper, on which 
the ink has become thoroughly dried, should be used. 
Writing X3ai3er will not answer. 

Nickel. 

This is by far the most valuable metal that has been 
brought into notice during the x^ast few years. It has been 
long familiar to chemists, and as a component of German 
silver, electrum, and similar alloys, it has been in common 
use, but as an unalloyed coating for other metals it has only 
been employed for about ten years. 

It is hard, not easily corroded by acids, and, unlike silver, 
it is entirely unaffected by sulphur. In addition to these 
valuable qualities it has one of sj)ecial importance in some 
cases, and that is the ease with which a nickel surface slides 
over any other smooth body. Hence, for the sliding parts of 
telescopes, microscopes, etc., it has come into very general 
use, and it is not improbable that it will prove of great value 
in the case of slide valves, pistons, etc. 

Nickel is almost ahvays applied as a coating by the electro- 
plating process, for instructions in which art we must refer 



100 THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 

our reaaers to any good work on the art of electro-metal- 
lurgy. . ^ 

A foreign journal gives tlie following directions for nickel 
plating without a battery : To a solution of ^xe to ten per 
cent, of chloride of zinc, as pure as possible, add sufficient 
sulj)hate of nickel to produce a strong green color, and bring 
to boiling in a i^orcelain vessel. The piece to be plated, 
which must be perfectly bright and free from grease, is in- 
troduced so that it touches the vessel as little as j)ossible. 
Ebullition is continued from 30 to 60 minutes, water being 
added from time to time to replace that evajDorated. During 
ebullition nickel is precii^itated in the form of a white and 
brilliant coating. The boiling can be continued for hours 
without sensibly increasing the thickness of this coating. 
As soon as the object appears to be plated it is v/ashed in 
water containing a little chalk in suspension, and then care- 
fully dried. This coating may be scoured with chalk, and is 
very adherent. The chloride of zinc and also the sulphate of 
nickel used must be free from metals precipitable by iron. 
If during the precipitation the liquor becomes colorless, 
sulphate of nickel should be added. The spent liquor may be 
used again by exposing to the air until the contained iron is 
precipitated, filtering and adding the zinc and nickel salts 
as above. Cobalt also may be dej^osited in the same manner. 

Noise— Prevention of. 

To those who carry on any operations requiring much ham- 
mering or pounding, a simple means of deadening the noise 
of their work is a great relief. Several methods have been 
suggested, but the best are probably these : 

1. Rubber cushions under the legs of the work-bench. 
Chamber's Journal describes a factory Vvdiere the hammering 
of fifty coppersmiths was scarcely audible in the room below, 
their benches having under each leg a rubber cushion. 

2. Kegs of sand or sawdust a^Dplied in the same way. A 
few inches of sand or sawdust is first poured into each keg ; 
on this is laid a board or block ujDon which the leg rests, 
and round the leg and block is poured fine dry sand or saw- 
dust. Not only all noise, but all vibration and shock, is 
prevented ; and an ordinary anvil, so mounted, may be used 
in a dwelling house without annoying the inhabitants. To 
amateurs, whose workshops are almost always located iu 



THE WORKSHOP COMPAOTON. 101 

dwelling houses, tliis device affords a cheap and simple relief 
from a very gi-eat annoyance. 

Painting Bright Metals. 

Wlien iDaint is applied to bripflit metals like tin or zinc, it 
is very apt to peel off. This diiiiculty is greatly lessened if 
the metal be hot when the paint is applied, but in many 
cases this cannot be done. In such cases the surface of the 
metal should be corroded, for which purpose a solution of 
sulphate of coi:)per, acidulated with nitric acid answers well. 
The metal should be washed with the solution, allowed to 
stand a couple of hours, and then washed with clean water 
and dried. 

Painting the Hours on Metal Dials. — The black coloring 
matter is the soot obtained by holding a clean copper or 
sheet metal plate over the flame of an oil or petroleum lamp 
(a glowing tool serves the purjDose very well). As soon as a 
sufficient deposit is produced it is collected on a piece of 
glass, care being taken not to mix any foreign substance with 
it. A few drops of essence of lavender are then poured on 
the soot and the mixture i^ounded with a spatula. This done, 
just sufficient copal varnish is added to give the composition 
a iDroj)er thickness, so as to i3revent it spreading when ap- 
plied. The varnish thus prepared is i3ut on by means of a 
very fine brush. To secure brilKancy the dial is dried at a 
slow heat, by passing it lightly over a sj)irit flame, the reverse 
side of the dial being, of course, the only part exposed to the 
flame. This composition must be made in quantities large 
enough for present use only, as it dries very rapidly and 
cannot be utilized afterwards. To secure good results this 
process requires some experience, which can only be obtained 
by careful experiments. The painting especially requires a 
certain aptitude and lightness of hand, which may, however, 
soon be attained by strict attention. 

This i^rocess, which gives very excellent results, is evi- 
dently applicable to a great variety of purposes. 

Paper. 

There are so many purposes to which paper is applied that 
a small volume might be filled with a description of them. 
The following are those w^hich will jDrobably prove most 
useful to the amateur : 

Adhesive Papei\ — Paper in sheets, half of which are 



102 THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 

gummed on both sides, and the other half on one side, and 
divided into strips and sqn?cres of different sizes by perfora- 
tions, like sheets of postage stamps, are very convenient in 
many ways — the doubly-gummed ansv> ering for fixing draw- 
ings in books, labels on glass, etc. It is stated that the 
mixture by which it is coated is j^rei^ared by dissolving six 
parts of glue, previously soaked for a day in cold water, two 
parts of sugar, and three parts of gum arable, in twenty-four 
parts of water, by the aid of heat. 

Barometei^ Paper. — This is paper impregnated with a so- 
called sympathetic ink, which alters its color by a change of 
temperature. The most delicate substance to accomplish 
this is sulphocyanide of cobalt^ originally ]3roposed by Grotthus. 
This is j)repared by adding an alcoholic solution of potassium 
sulj)hocyanide to an aqueous solution of cobaltous sulphate, 
until no more potassium sulijhate separates. The whole is 
transfeiTed to a filter, and the residue on the filter (potassium 
sulphate) v/ashed with alcohol. The dilute filtrate may be 
used as it is, for impregnating paper, or it may be concen- 
trated by very careful evaporation at as low a temperature as 
possibla The salt may be obtained crystalline by removing 
the alcoholic menstruum in the vacuum of an air-pump. It 
forms violet columns, soluble in water with red color. Paper 
impregnated with the alcolwUc solution, or on Avhich tracings 
have been made with the latter, turns reddish in clri/ air, but 
assumes a hlue color at the slightest elevation of temperature. 

Creases, To Take out of Drawing Paper or Engravings. — Lay 
the paper or engraving, face downwards, on a sheet of smooth, 
unsized white paper : cover it with another sheet of the same, 
very slightly damped, and iron with a moderately warm fiat 
iron. 

Drawing Papei\ To Mount. — Sometimes it is difficult to get 
a drawing on a sheet of ]3aper of the ordinary sizes when 
Btretched uj^on a board, by reason of the waste edges used to 
liecure the paper firmly ; and again, in stiff papers, such as 
the **EggsheU," so called, ordinary mucilage does not pos- 
sess sufficient strength, and glue has to be substituted, to the 
annoyance of the draughtsman. The following is a very 
simple way of obviating these difficulties : First moisten the 
paper thoroughly ; then lay it upon the board in proper 
position, and, with blotting paper, remove most of the moist- 
ure for a distance of half an inch or thereabouts from the 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 103 

edges ; then take strips of Manila paper (not too stifl^ about 
one and a half inches wide, covered on one side with mucil- 
iifjre, and paste them doAvn on both paper and board, allowing 
them to lap on the edges of the sheet about half an inch. 
Jx^eep the middle of the sheet thoroughly wet until the 
mucilage on tlie edges has s(^t, wdien the Avliole sheet may be 
allowed to dry gradually. It will be found that this method 
is quicker and surer than any other, and is of great use where 
it is necessary to color on mounted paper. 

Gil isfi- Paper. — Paper coated with glass is known by this 
name just as paper coated with fine sharp sand is called sand- 
paper, and pai3er coated with emery is called emefi^y paper. 
Paper or a cheap cloth is coated with thinnish glue, dusted 
heavily and evenly with glass-powder of the proper fineness, 
and allowed to become nearly dry. The suiDerfluous powder 
is then shaken off, the sheets are pressed to make them even, 
and afterAvards thoroughly dried. 

The objection to ordinary glass-paper is that it is easily 
injured by heat and moisture. If the glue be mixed with a 
little bichromate of potassa before it is applied to the cloth, 
and exposed for some time to strong bright sunshine while it 
is drying, it will become insoluble in water. 

The glue may also be rendered insoluble by the process of 
tanning. The pai3er or cloth is first soaked in a solution of 
tannic acid and dried. The glue is then applied, the 
poAvdered glass dusted on, and OA'eritis dusted a little tannic 
acid. If the glue be not very moist, it should be damped by 
means of an atomiser, a very cheap form of which is figured 
in The Young Scientist, a^oL 2. The sheets are then slowly 
di'ied and will be found to resist moisture very thoroughly. 

Paper, To Prepare for Varnishing. — To j)reA^ent the ab- 
sorption of varnish, and injury to any color or design on the 
paper, it is necessary to first giA-e it two or three coats of 
size. The best size for white or delicate colors is made by 
dissohdng a little isinglass in boiling Avater, or by boiling 
some clean parchment cuttings until they form a clear solu- 
tion ; then strain through a piece of clean muslin. It may be 
applied with a clean soft paint brush, the first coat, esj^ecially, 
very lightly. The best brush for this purpose is the kind 
used by vai'nishers for giving the finishing flow coats of 
varnish, wide, flat and soft ; or where there is much danger 
of injuring a design, and the paper article will allow of it, it 



104 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 

is a good plan for the first coat, to pour the Solution into a 
wide, flat dish, and pass the paper throagh it once, and back 
again, and then hang it up to dry. For less delicate pur- 
poses, a little light-colored glue, soaked over night in enough 
water to cover it, and then dissolved by heat, adding hot 
water enough to dilute it sufficiently, will make an excellent 
sizing. 

Pollen Powder, w" Papei" Powder. — Boil white paper or 
paper cuttings in water for five hours. Pour off the water, 
pound the pulp in a wedgwood mortar, and pass through a 
fine sieve. This powder is employed by the bird stuffers to 
dust over the legs of some birds, and the bills of others, to 
give them a jDOwdery appearance ; also to communicate the 
downy bloom to rough-coated artilicial fruit, and other pur- 
poses of a similar nature ; it makes excellent pounce. 

Tracing Pape7\ — Tracing paper may be purchased so 
cheaply that it is hardly worth while to make it ; and there 
is a very fine, tough kind now in market which may be 
mounted and colored almost like drawing paper. Those who 
desire to prepare some for themselves will find that the follow- 
ing directions give a good result. The inventor of the pro- 
cess received a medal and premium from the Society of Ai-ts 
for it. 

Open a quire of tough tissue paper, and brush the first 
sheet with a mixture of equal parts of mastic varnish and oil 
of turpentine. Proceed with each sheet similarly and dry 
them on lines by hanging them up singly. As the process 
goes on, the under sheets absorb a portion of the varnish, and 
require less than if single sheets were brushed separately. 
The paper, Avlien dry, is quite light and transparent, and may 
readily be written on with ink. 

Transfer paper. — This is useful for copying patterns, draw- 
ings, etc. Designs for scroll saws may be copied very neatly 
by means of it. It is easily made by rubbing a thin but 
tough unglazed paper with a mixture of lard and lampblack. 
The copy is made by laying a sheet of the transfer or, as it ' 
is sometimes called, manifold paper, over a clean sheet of 
drawing or writing paper, and over it the drawing to be 
copied. The lines of the drp^wing are then carefully traced 
with a fine but blunt jDoint, and the pressure along the lines 
transfers to the clean paper underneath a perfect copy. To 
keep the under side of the drawing or pattern clean, a sheet 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 105 

of ussne paper may be placed between it and the transfer 
I^aper. 

Water Stains, To Remove from Engravings or Paper. — Fill a 
large vessel with pure water and dip the engraving in, waving 
it backward and forward until thoroughly wet. Then spread 
a sheet of clean white paper on a drawing board, lay the en- 
graving on it and fasten both to the board with drawing pins. 
Expose it to bright sunshine, kee23ing it moist until the stains 
disappear, which will not be long. This is simply a modifi- 
cation of the old system of bleaching linen. 

Waxed Papei\ — Paper saturated with wax, paraffin or 
stearin is very useful for wrajDping up articles which should 
be kej)t dry and not exposed to the air. Place a sheet of 
stout iDaper on a heated iron plate, and over this place the 
sheets of unglazed paper — tissue paper does very well — that 
are to be waxed. Enclose the wax or paraffin in a piece of 
muslin, and as it melts spread it evenly over the paper. 

Patina. 

An imitation of patina for bronze objects of all kinds can 
be produced by jDreparing a paint of carbonate of coj^i^er 
and any light alcoholic varnish, and applying it to the object 
with a brush. This green color penetrates the smallest re- 
cesses, and has, when dry, the appearance of patina. Car- 
bonate of copper gives a blue patina, verdigris a light green, 
and intermediate shades of color can be obtained by mixing 
the two. 

Patterns— To Trace. 

There are various methods of making copies of j^attems on 
pajier, the simplest perhaps being the use of the tracing 
paper described on another page. 

When a few duplicates of i^atterns for embroidery are re- 
quired, they may be very easily made by hand as follows : 

The drawing is made upon paper ; then lay the drawing 
upon an even cloth, and perforate all the lines with a line 
needle, close and even. Then take finely powdered charcoal, 
three parts, resin one part in fine powder ; mix and tie it in 
a piece of porous calico, so that it forms a dusting bag. Lay 
the jDcrforated drawing upon your material, hold down with 
one hand, rub the dusting-bag over the drawing ; the dust 
will fall through the holes and form the drawing on the ma- 
terial. Remove the paper drawing, lay blotting-paper over 



106 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

the d;ist pattern, and go over it with a warm flat iron 
The heat will melt the resin and fix the drawing on the 
material. 

Pencils as a Substitute for Ink. 

Aniline pencils have been in use for some time, and have 
given good satisfaction, but the following is said to give even 
better results. Pencils made after the following formula 
give a very black writing, callable of being reproduced by 
the copying machine, and which does not fade on exj)osure 
to light. The mass for these pencils is prepared as follows : 
10 pounds of the best logAvood are rej)eatedly boiled in 10 
gallons of water, straining each time. The liquid is then 
evaporated down till it weighs 10 pounds, and is then 
allowed to boil in a pan of stoneware or enamel. To the 
boiling liquid, nitrate of oxide of chrome is added in small 
quantities, until the bronze-colored i3recipitate formed at first 
is redissolved with a deep blue coloration. This solution is 
then evaporated in the water bath down to a sirui?, with 
wdiich is mixed well kneaded clay in the i3roportion of 1 part 
of clay to 3^ of extract. A little gum tragacanth m also 
added to obtain a proper consistence. 

It is absolutely necessary to use the salt of chrome in the 
right proportion. An excess of this salt gives a disagreeable 
appearance to the v/riting, while if too little is used the black 
matter is not sulSciently soluble. 

The other salts of chrome cannot be used in this prepara- 
tion, as they would crystallize, and the writing would scale 
off as it dried. 

The nitrate of oxide of chrome is prei^ared by precii^itating 
a hot solution of chrome alum with a suitable quantity of 
carbonate of soda. The precipitate is v/aslied till the filtrate 
is free from sulphuric acid. The preciiDitate thus obtained 
is dissolved in pure nitric acid, so as to leave a little still 
undissolved. Hence the solution contains no free acid, 
which would give the ink a dirty red color. Oxalic acid and 
caustic alkalies do not attack the writing. Dilute nitric 
acid reddens, but does not obliterate the characters. 

Pencil Marks— To Fix. 

To fix Pencil Marks so they w^ill not rub out, take well- 
skimmed milk and dilute with an equal bulk of waiter. 
"Wash the pencil marks (whether writing or drawing) with 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 107 

fliis liquid, using a soft, flat camol-liair brush, and avoiding 
all rubbing. Place ui)on a flat board to dry. 

Pewter. 

Tlie princij)al constituents of pewter are lead and tin ; the 
l^roportions of the t^v^o metals dei)eiiding somewhat on the 
use to which the alloy is i)ut. The l)e^;t contains but 16 
to 20 per cent, of lead. Dl this plates and dishes are made, 
which look like block tin, ^nd can be bi'ightly polished by 
rubbing. The addition of more lead cheapens the com- 
modity, and gives it a dull bluish ax)])earance. In France 
pewter vessels for wine and vinegar contain 18 i^er cent, of 
lead. It has been found that a larger proiDortion of that 
metal in utensils for this jjurpose as liable ^to result in the 
formation, in the liquid, of the poisonous acetate or sugar of 
lead. 

A little copper added in making j^ev/ter hardens the com- 
230uiid and renders it sonorous, so that toy trumpets and 
other rude musical instruaients can be made of it. If the 
copper is replaccvl by antimony, hardness and a silvery lustre 
are the result. If the contents of the melting pot are stirred 
with a strip half of zinc and half of tin, or if a lump of zinc 
is allowed to float on the melted metal during the casting, 
the vaporized spelter seems to iDrotect the fluid mass from 
oxidation, and prevents the formation of dross. Hence it is 
said to ** cleanse " the mass. 

Jewellers use polishers and laps of iDCwter, and sheets of 
the article are to some extent used for cheap engraving, 
music notes, or other figures being stamj^ed upon it instead 
of being cut with a burin or graver. The ease with which it 
melts causes it to be emiDloyed by tinsmiths and tinkers for 
solder. Care must be taken not to set i^ewter dishes, mugs, 
simoons, lamps, etc., on stoves or other hot bodies, as, if left 
for any time, they are liable to settle into shapeless lumps. 

Pillows for the Sick Room. 

Save all your scraps of w^riting paper, old envelopes, old 
notes of no use for keeping, old backs of notes, etc. Cut 
them in strips about one-half inch wdde and two inches long, 
and curl them w^ell with an old penknife. Make a pillow case 
of any materials you have ; fill it with your curled paper mixed 
with a few shreds of flannel. Stuff it quite full, sew up the 
end and cover as you please, These pillow s are inyaluablQ 



108 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 

in cases of fever, as tliey keep constantly cool and allow a 
circulation of air. 

Plaster of Paris. 

Plaster of Paris is a well known material, obtained by ex- 
posing the purer varieties of gypsum or alabaster to a lieat 
a little above that of boiling water, w^hen it becomes a fine, 
white dry poAvder. Sometimes the gypsum is first reduced 
to a fine powder and then heated in iron pans, and in this 
case the operation is sometimes called '* boiling" plaster, 
because the escape of the w^ater, with w^hich crystalline gyp- 
sum is always combined, gives to the fine powder the appear- 
ance of boiling. ^ Plaster of Paris, after being boiled, rapidly 
deteriorates when exposed to the air, consequently when 
plaster is required for making cements or for other purposes 
for which a good article is needed, care must be taken to 
secure that w^hich is good and freshly boiled. The Italian 
image makers always use a superior quality of plaster, and it 
may generally be obtained from them in small quantity. 

The employment of gypsum in casting, and in all cases 
where impressions are required, is very extensive. A thin 
pulp of 1 part gypsum and 2^ parts water is made ; this pulp 
hardens by standing. The hardening of good, well-burnt 
gypsum is effected in one to two minutes, and more quickly 
in a moderate heat. Models are made in this substance for 
galvano-plastic purposes, for metallic castings, and for ground 
works in porcelain manufacture. The object from which the 
cast is to be taken is first well oiled to prevent the adhesion 
of the gypsum. Yvlien greater hardness is required a small 
quantity of lime is added ; this addition gives a very marble- 
like appearance, and the mixture is much employed in archi- 
tecture, being then known as gypsum-marble or stucco. 
The gypsum is generally mixed v/ith lime water, to which 
sometimes a solution of sulphate of zinc is added. After 
drying, the surface is rubbed down with pumice stone, 
colored to represent marble, and polished with Tripoli and 
olive oil. Artificial scagiiola work is largely composed of 
gypsum. 

There are several methods of hardening gypsum. One of 
the oldest consists in mixing the burnt g^^psum with lime- 
water or a solution of gum arable. Another, yielding very 
good results, is to mix the gypsum with a solution of 20 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 109 

ounces of alum in 6 pounds of water ; this i^laster hardens 
comi)letelj in 15 to 30 minutes, and is hirgelj used under 
the name of marble cement. Parian cement is gyj^sum 
hardened by means of borax, 1 j)art borax being dissolved in 
9 i^arts of water, and the gyi^sum treated with the solution. 
Still better results are obtained by the addition to this solu- 
tion of 1 i^art of cream of tartar. 

The hardening of gyj)sum with a water-glass solution is 
found difficult, and no better results are obtained than w^ith 
ordinary gyj)sum. Fissot obtains artificial stone from gyp- 
sum by burning and immersions in water, first for half a 
minute, after which it is exposed to the air and again for two 
to three minutes, when the block ai>i3ears as a hardened stone. 
It would seem from this method that the augmentation in 
hardness is due to a new crystalization. Hardened gypsum, 
treated with stearic acid or Avith paraffine, and polished, 
much resembles meerschaum ; the resemblance may be in- 
creased by a coloring solution of gamboge and dragon's 
blood, to impart a faint red-yellow tint. The cheaj) artificial 
meerschaum pipes are manufactured by this method. 

Poisons. 

Many of the substances used in the arts are highly poison- 
ous. Indeed, some of the most virulent jDoisons are em- 
j)loyed in very common operations. Thus arsenic is used for 
coloring brass ; the strong acids are used in every machine 
shop and foundry, and even prussic acid may be occasionally 
l^roduced during the employment of j^russiate of potash. 
The extremely x)oisonous cyanide of j^otassium is used by 
every j)hotographer and electroi3later. Even into the house- 
hold, poisons too frequently find their way. Our matches are 
tipped with a strong poison, and housekeei^ers are often too 
ready with poison for the destruction of vermin. Phos- 
phorous, arsenic and corrosive sublimate, are too frecp^ently ., 
thus used. Paris gTeen also we have actually seen used for ' 
the destruction of cockroaches in jDantries, and corrosive 
sublimate is in common use as a poison for bed-bugs. As a 
bug poison it is generally dissolved in alcohol or whiskey, 
and the odor and taste have sometimes proved a strong 
temptation to persons who did not fully realize its dangerous 
character. All bottles containing such mixtures should 
Ijheref ore be carefully labelled, *' POISON," in large letters, 



110 THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 

raid Wxien emptied tliej should either be broken, or very 
carefully cleansed, since accidents have arisen from careless 
])ersons pouring drinkable liquids into bottles that have 
contained solutions of corrosi^'e sublimate, vvdiich solutions, 
after drying up have left the bottle api3arently empty, but in 
r. aljty containing an amount of poison sufficient to destroy 
sevei'al lives. 

In all cases where poisons have been swallowed, the prop;-^r 
course is first to neutralize the deleterious agent, and then to 
procure its rejection by means either of the stomach-pump 
or an emetic. The stomach-2)ump is, of course, the best and 
most expeditious agent. It requires but a few moments to 
insert it and remove the contents of the stomach ; fresh sup- 
plies of water and the proper antidotes can then be poured 
into the organ, so that in a few minutes the last traces of the 
X)oison can be removed* But as the stomach-j^ump is to be 
found in the 2:>ossession of physicians only, reliance must in 
general l)e placed upon emetics, of which the best is, un- 
questionably, mustard — an article which is to be found in 
almost every household. It is generally conceded by physi- 
cians that mustard is the mildest, most raj^id, and most 
efficient emetic known. It is prepared for use as follows : 
Take about a plump dessert-spoonful of genuine flour of 
mustard (if it be mixed with wheat flour or turmeric, more 
will be needed), and mix it rapidly in a cup with water to 
the consistency of thin gruel, and let this be swallowed 
Avithout delay or hesitation. In a very few seconds the con- 
tents of the stomach will be ejected. Before the emetic 
action has entirely ceased, a little lukewarm water, or still 
bitter, warm milk, should bo forced down. This wdll be 
thrown off immediately, and will serve to rinse out the 
stomach and remove the last traces of deleterious matter. 

By the time the operation of the emetic has ceased, a phy- 
sician will probably be in attendance, and to his care the 
patient should be at once confided. 

The following notes on special poisons will prove useful : 

Strmig Acid. — Wliere nitric, sulphuric or hydrochloric 
acid has been swallowed, it is Vy^ell to administer carbonate 
of soda before giv|ng the emetic. 

Oxalic ^czd— This acid is often found among the articles 
provided for household use, being used for cleaning brass 
mix various metals, as well as for removing stains of ink and 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. Ill 

iron mould. In former times it was used for cleaning boot 
tops and for some other purposes. In appearance it re- 
sembles epsom salts so closely that even experienced chemists 
might be deceived, if it were not for the taste, for while the 
acid is intensely sour the salts are as intensely bitter. 

The proper a^^fcidote to oxalic acid is some form of lime, 
and the best method of administering it is to mix finely 
pulverized chalk with water to the consistency of cream and 
swallow it. It is a singular fact that when oxalic acid is 
largely diluted with water, it acts very rapidly and energeti- 
cally, * destroying life almost with the rapidity of i:)russio 
acid. Hence to administer soapy water, or any other very 
diluted remedy, would be almost fatal. And yet this courso 
was actually recommended by a j^ojDular scientific journal. 

Prussic Acid. — ^As this is one of the most ra2:)id of all 
poisons in its action, promj^jt and energetic measures are de- 
mandod. Cokl afrusion to the head and spine has been found 
the most efficacious mode of treatment. Internal remedies 
appear to be of no service. The vapor of ammonia may be 
cautiously applied to the nostrils, and stimulating liniments 
by friction to the chest and abdomen, but unless the dose is 
small, and the patient is seen early, there can be little hope 
of benefit from any treatment. Certain chemical substances 
(cyanides) from which prussic acid is slowly evolved by the 
action of the air, are used in electro-plating and in j^lioto- 
gra23hy. These substances are themselves very strong poisons, 
and if accidentally swallowed they cause death with such 
rapidity that there is scarcely any time to apply any remedies. 
Green copi^eras (sulphate of iron) dissolved in water and ad- 
ministered would decompose and neutralize the i^oison, aft^r 
which the directions given for j)russic acid should be followed. 
When poisoning occurs from breathing the vapors arising 
from these salts, it is caused by prussic acid, and should be 
treated accordingly. 

Arsenic — Paris Green. — ^By arsenic is generally meant tha 
white oxide of the metal ai'senic. It is also known as ai^seniovs 
acid. Paris green is well known and owes its deadly jjroper- 
ties to arsenic. In all cases in which x^oisonous doses of 
arsenic have been swallowed, our great dej^endance must be 
placed ui3on emetics and purgatives. Persons who take 
arsenic upon a full stomach frequently escape its effects, and 
therefore it is always well to give copious draughts of milk, 



112 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

or, if more convenient, raw ej:^gs, beaten up. Then, as soon 
as possible, administer an emetic (mustard is as good as any) 
and keep up its action by giving milk during the intervals 
of the paroxysms of vomiting. When the stomach no longer 
rejects what is swallowed, give a good dose of castor oil. 

Con^osive Sublimate, — When corrosive sublimate has been 
SYv^allowed, the first thing to be done is, if possible, to get 
rid of it, either by means of emetics or the stomach-pump. 
If the x^oison has been taken on a full stomach, an emetic or 
the pump is the first thing in order ; if the stomach be empty, 
it Avill be better to administer, in the first place, as much 
white of Qgg, or milk, or mixture of both, as the patient can 
be made to swallow, and immediately afterwards give an 
emetic. The w^hite of eggs is the great antidote for corrosive 
sublimate, but it is of no use vvhere the poison has been ab- 
sorbed into the system, and if, after administering white of 
eggs, we neglect to procure its rejection, the compound that 
is formed may be destroyed by the action of the gastric juice, 
and left free to act with all its original virulence. 

PJiosphoi^ons. — There is no efficient antidote or remedy for 
poisoning by phosphorous. Taylor recommends the admin- 
istration of emetics, and of albuminous or mucilaginous 
drinks, holding hydrate of magnesia suspended. The exhibi- 
tion of oil would be decidedly injurious, as this dissolves and 
tends to diffuse the poison.^ Saline purgatives should there- 
fore be preferred. 

Opium, — ^When a 23oisonous dose of opium has been taken, 
the first object should be to remove the poison, and this must 
frequently be accomplished by the stomach-pump, as emetics 
are of little service w^hen the patient has lost the pov\^er of 
swallowing. Dashing cold water on the head, chest, and 
spine, has been adopted with great success ; in the treatment 
of infants, the plunging of the body into a warm bath, and 
suddenly removing it from the water into the cold air, has 
been found a most effectual method of rousing them. Severe 
whipping on the palms of the hands and soles of the feet or 
the back has also been successfully employed. A common 
plan for rousing an adult is to keep him in continual motion, 
by making him walk between two assistants. Above all things, 
the tendency to fall into a state of lethargy must be prevented. 
A strong decoction of coffee has been frequently employed as 
a stimulant to promote recovery, and apparently with benefitt 



^^ THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. Il5 

Strpcknine. — ^When this poison has been absorbed and coa- 
veved into the blood there is no known antidote to its action, 
lint if spasms have not ab*eadj set in so as to close the jaws, 
we should, by the stomach-pnmi) or by emetics, endeavor to 
remove the i^oison. In a case in which six grains of strychnine 
were taken, the life of the person appears to have been saved 
by the early nse of the stomach-pump. It has been supi^osed 
that emetics would not act in these cases ; but this is an 
error based on imperfect observation. In one case a man 
took three grains of strychnine, dissolved in rectified spirits 
and diluted sulphuric acid. He went to bed and slept for 
about an hour and a half, w^hen he awoke in a spasm, utter- 
ing loud cries, w^hich alarmed the household. Free vomiting 
was brought on by the use of emetics, and this, combined 
v\dth other treatment, led to his recovery. The first step, 
therefore, in every case, should be to induce vomiting. 

Ivy Poisoning. — The best remedy for ivy poisoning is said 
to be sw^eet spirits of nitre. Bathe the parts affected freely Avitli 
this fluid three or four times during the day, and the next 
morning scarcely any trace of poison will be found. If the 
blisters be broken, so as to allow the spirits to penetrate the 
cuticle, a single aj)plication will be sufficient. 

Stings. — Extract the sting, which is always left behind by 
bees, and bathe* the parts with cold water, or api3ly a good 
poultice of common clay mud. Liquid ammonia mixed either 
wdth the water or the mud, will jDrove of service. All lini- 
ments w^hich require rubbing are bad, as tending to irritate 
the part and diffuse the poison. Above all, avoid scratching 
ihe wound. 

Polishing Powders. 

Nothing is more necessary to the successful use of jiolish- 
ing powder than equality in the grain. Fine dust clogs the 
action of coarse grinding powders, and prevents them from 
cutting with rapidity the object to be ground ; coarse parti- 
cles mixed wdth fine j3olishing j^owder scratch the article to 
be polished, and render grinding and polishing necessary 
again. To secure fineness and uniformity no jDrocess equals 
that of elutriation, vvhich is thus 23erformed : Suppose it 
w^ere desired to separate the ordinary flour of emery into 
three different degrees of fineness. Take three vessels (such as 
tin pails or glass jars) and mix the emery with a large 



Ill THE WOUKSIIOP COMPANION. 

quantity of ^vdter — say a quart of water to 1^ oz. of emery. 
Stir the mixture until tlie emery is thoroughly diffused 
through the liquid, and allow to stand five minutes. By this 
lime all the heaviei particles will have settled, and on pour- 
ia;^ the fluid into a second jar only the finer portion will bo 
carried over. So continue to wash the first residuum until 
nearly all the particles have subsided at the end of five 
minutes, and the water is left comparatively clear. You v/ill 
now have the coarse ^Dortion, No. 1, by itself. 

So, from the sediment collected from the washings of No. 1, 
you may collect a j)ortion, No. 2, having a second degree of 
coarseness. The last and finest will be obtained by letting 
the final washings stand ten or fifteen minutes, j)oui'ing off 
the liquid and allowing it to settle. 

The principal polishing powders are chalk or whiting, 
crocus or rouge, emery, oilstone powder, and putty or tutty, 
which latter consists chiefly of oxide of tin. Other powders, 
such as tripoli, bath -brick, sand, etc., are rarely used for the 
finer kinds of work. Emery is so well known that it does 
not need description. 

Clialk or Whiting. — Chalk is a native carbonate of lime, 
consisting of the remains of minute creatures known as/or- 
(iininifera, and wdien simply scrai3ed or crushed under a 
hammer or runner, it is sometimes used for polishing such 
s .' . substances as bone, ivory, etc. As it contains particles 
of silica of varying size, it cuts freely, but is apt to scratch. 
To remove the gritty particles, the chalk is ground, and the 
finer i^arts separated l3y washing. It then becomes whiting, 
which is generally sold in lumps. Whiting has very poor 
cutting qualities, and it is therefore used chiefly as j^htte 
poirder for cleaning gold, silver, glass, etc., and for absorb- 
ing grease from metals which have been polished bv other 
means. 

Prepared Chalk. — This is a manufactured article, pre- 
j^ared by adding a solution of carbonate of soda to a solution 
of chloride of calcium (both cheap salts), so long as a precip- 
itate is thrown down. The solutions should be carefully 
filtered through paper before being mixed, and dust should 
be rigorously excluded. The white powder which falls 
down is carbonate of lime, or chalk, and when carefully 
washed and dried, it forms a most excellent polishing powder 
for the softer metals. The x^articles are almost impalpable, 



THE WOEKSHOP COMPANIOK. 115 

but seem to be crystalline, for tliej iiolisli quickly and 
smootlily, tlioiigli they seem to wear av/ay tlic material so 
little that its form or sharpness is not injured to any per- 
ceptible degree. 

Crocus or Rouge. — These articles are manufactured at 
Liverpool, by j^ersons who make it their sole occui)ation, in 
the following manner : 

They take crystals of sulphate of iron (green vitriol or 
copiDcras), immediately from the crystallizing vessels, in the 
copperas works there, so as to have them as clean as i^ossible ; 
and instantly put them into crucibles or cast iron pots, auvl 
expose them to heat, without suffering the smallest loartiele 
of dust to get in, which would have a tendency to scratch 
the articles to be iDolished. Those portions which are least 
calcined and are of a scarlet color, are fit to make rouge for 
polishing gold or silver, while those which are calcined or 
have become red-purple or bluish-xDurple, form crocus fit for 
polishing brass or steel. Of these, the bluish-purple colored 
parts are the hardest, and are found nearest to the bottom of 
the vessels, and consequently have been exposed to the 
greatest degree of heat. 

Mr. Andrew Boss's mode of preparing Oxide of Iron. — 
Dissolve crystals of sulphate of iron in water ; filter the 
solution to separate some particles of silex which are gen- 
erally jDresent, and sometimes are abundant ; then i^recipitate 
from this filtered solution the j)rotoxide of iron, by the addi- 
tion of a saturated solution of soda, which must also be 
filtered. This grey oxide is to be repeatedly washed and 
then dried ; i3ut it in this state into a crucible, and very 
gradually raise it to a dull red heat ; then pour it into a 
clean metal or earthen dish, and while cooling it will absorb 
oxygen from the atmosphere, and acquire a beautiful dark 
red color. In this state it is fit for polishing the softer 
metals, as silver and gold, but will scarcely make any imjjres- 
sion on hardened steel or glass. For these latter pur^Doses I 
discovered that it is the black oxide that affected the ijoiish 
(and this gives to the red oxide a purple hue, which is used 
as the criterion of its cutting quality in ordinary), therefore 
for polishing the harder materials the oxide must be heated 
to a bright red, and kept in that state until a sufiicient 
quantity of it is converted into black oxide to give the mass 
a deep purple hue when exposed to the atmosphere, I have 



116 THE WOEKSHOP COMPANIOK. 

converted the whole into black oxide ; but this is liable to 
scratch, and does not work so pleasantly as when mixed with 
tlie softer material. The j)owder must now be levigated 
with a soft wrought iron spatula, upon a soft iron slab, and 
afterwards washed in a very weak solution of gam arable, as 
recommended by Dr. Green in his paper on specula. The 
oxide i)rei3ared in this manner is almost impal23able, and 
free from all extraneous matter, and has the requisite quality 
in an eminent degree for polishing steel, glass, the softer 
gems, etc. 

Loi'd Ross's Mode of prepariyig the Peroxide of Iron. — 
*'I prepare the peroxide of iron by precipitation with water 
of ammonia from a pure dilute solution of sulphate of iron ; 
the i3recipitate is washed, pressed in a screw press till nearly 
dry, and exposed to a heat which in the dark appears a dull 
low red. The only points of importance are, that the sul- 
phate of iroji should be pure, that the water of ammonia 
should be decidedly in excess, and that the heat should 
not exceed that I have described. The color will be a bright 
crimson inclining to yellow. I have tried both soda and 
potash, pure, instead of water of ammonia, but after washing 
with some degree of care, a trace of the alkali still remained, 
and the peroxide was of an ochrey color till overheated, and 
did not polish properly." 

Oilstone Powdei\ — The Turkey oilstone can hardly be con- 
sidered as a hone slate, having nothing of a lamellar or schis- 
tose appearance. As a whetstone it surpasses every other 
known substance, and X30ssesses, in an eminent degree, the 
property of abrading the hardest steel, and is, at the same 
time, of so compact and close a nature as to resist the 
pressure necessary for sharpening a graver or other small 
instrument of that description. Little more is known of its 
natural history than that it is found in the interior of Asia 
Minor, and brought down to Smyrna for sale. The white 
and black varieties of Turkey oilstone differ but little in 
their general characters ; the black is, however, somew^hat 
harder, and is imported in larger i3ieces than the white. 

Fragments of oilstone, when pulverized, sifted and washed, 
are much in request by mechanicians. This abrasive is 
generally preferred for grinding together those fittings of 
mathematical instruments and machinery, which are made 
wholly or in part of brass or gun metal, for oilstone being 



THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 117 

Bofter and more pulverulent tlian emeiy, is less liable to be- 
come embedded m the metal than emery, which latter is then 
apt continually to grind, and ultimately damage the accuracy 
of the fittings of brass works. In modern practice it is usual, 
however, as far as possible, to discard the grinding together 
of surfaces, with the view of producing accuracy of form, or 
precision of contact. 

Oilstone i^owder is preferred to pumice-stone powder for 
polishing sui3erior brass works, and it is also used by the 
watchmaker on rubbers of pewter in polishing steel. 

Pumice-stoiie Powder. — Pumice-stone is a volcanic product, 
and is obtained principally from the Campo Bianco, one of 
the Lipari islands, which is entirely composed of this sub- 
stance. It is extensively employed in various branches of the 
arts, and j)articulariy in the state of powder, for polishing 
the various ari;icles of cut glass ; it is also extensively used 
in dressing leather, and in grinding and polishing the surface 
of metallic plates, etc. 

Pumice-stone is gro&ncc or crushed under a runner, and 
sifted, and in this state it is used for brass and other metal 
works, and also for japaiined, varnished and painted goods, 
for which latter puri^oses it ts generally applied on woolen 
cloths with water. 

Putty Powder is the pulverized cxide of tin, or generally 
of tin and lead mixed in various, proj)ortions. The process 
of manufacture is alike in all cases — the metal is oxidized in 
an iron muffle, or a rectangular box, close on all sides, 
excei^t a square hole in the front side. The retoii; is sur- 
rounded by fire, and kept at a red heat, so that its contents 
are partially ignited, and they are continually stirred to 
expose fresh portions to the heated air ; the process is com- 
plete when the fluid metal entirely disapj^ears, and the 
up23er part of the oxide then produced, sparkles somewhat 
like j)articles of incandescent charcoal. The oxide is then 
removed with ladles, and spread over the bottom of large 
iron cooling pans and allowed to cool. The lumps of oxide 
which are as hard as marble, are then selected from the 
mass and ground dry under the runner ; the putty powder 
is afterwards carefully sifted through lawn. 

As a criterion of quality it may be said that the whitest 
putty powder is the purest, provided it be heavy. Some of 
the common kinds are brown and yellow, while others, from 



118 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

the intentional admixture of a little ivory black, are known 
as grey putty. The pure white putty which is used by mar- 
ble workers, ojDticians and some others, is the smoothest and 
most cutting ; it should consist of the oxide of tin alone, but 
to lessen the difficulty of manufacture, a very little lead (the 
linings of tea chests), or else an alloy called sliruff (pre- 
pared in ingots by the pewterers) is added to assist the 
oxidation. 

The putty powder of commerce of good fair quality, is 
made of about equal parts of tin and lead, or tin and shruff ; 
the common dark colored kinds are prepared of lead only, 
but these are much harsher to the touch, and altogether 
inferior. 

Perhaps the most extensive use of putty powder, is in glass 
and marble works, but the best kind serves admirably as 
plate powder, and for the general purposes of polishing. 

Putty powder for fine optical purj)oses is prepared by 
Mr. A. Boss by the following method, which is the result of 
many experiments. Metallic tin is dissolved in nitro-muriatic 
acid, and precipitated from the filtered solution by liquid 
ammonia, both fluids being largely diluted with water. The 
peroxide of tin is then washed in abundance of water, col- 
lected in a cloth filter, and squeezed as dry as possible in a 
piece of new clean linen ; the mass is now subjected to 
pressure in a screw-press, or between lever boards, to make it 
as dry as possible. When the lumj) thus j)roduced has been 
broken in pieces and dried in the air, it is finally levigated 
while dry on a plate of glass with an iron spatula, and after- 
wards exposed in a crucible to a low white heat. 

Before the peroxide has been heated, or while it is in the 
levigated hydrous state, the putty jDowder possesses but little 
cutting quality, as under the microscoiDe, the particles then 
appear to have no determined form, or to be amorplious^ 
and, on being Avetted, to resume the gelatinous condition of 
the hydrous precipitate, so as to be useless for polishing ; 
whereas, when the powder is heated, to render it anhydrous, 
most of the particles take their natural form, that of lamellar 
a^ysials, and act with far more energy (yet without scratch- 
ing) than any of the ordinary j)olishing ^Dowders. The whole 
mass requires to be Washed or elutriated in the usual manner 
after having been heated, in order to separate the coarser 
particles. 



the: workshop compakiok. 119 



Mr. Eoss usually adds a little crocus to the putty powder 
by way of coloring matter, as it is then easier to learn the 
quantity of powder that remains on the iDolishing tool, and 
it may be added that this is the polishing powder employed 
by Mr. Ross in making his improved achromatic object- 
glasses for astronomical telescopes. 

Vienna Lime. — Vienna lime and alcohol give a beautiful 
polish to iron Or steel. Select the soft pieces of lime, such 
as will be easily crushed by the thumb and finger, as thoy 
are the most free from gTitty i3articles. Apply with a cork, 
piece of soft pine wood, leather, chamois, etc. 

Resins. 

The resins are so frequently employed in the arts that a 
knowledge of the action of different solvents upon them is of 
great value. 

Dr. Sac, of Neuenberg, Switzerland, has made an extensive 
inquiry into the nature of different resins. The following 
results, as obtained by him, are given in Dingler's Polif- 
technic Journal : — The resins spoken of are coj^al, amber, 
dammar, common resins, shellac, elemi, sandarach and 
mastic. All these resins can be reduced to powder. 

The following will become pasty before melting : Ambor, 
shellac, elemi, sandarach and mastic ; the others will become 
liquid at once. 

In boiling water common resin vfill form a semi-fluid mass ; 
dammar, shellac, elemi and mastic will become sticky ; while 
copal, amber and sandarach will remain unchanged. 

Dammar and amber do not dissolve in alcohol ; copal bo- 
comes pasty ; elemi dissolves with difficulty, while resin, 
shellac, sandarach and mastic dissolve easily. 

Acetic acid makes common resin swell ; on all the others 
it has no effect. 

Caustic soda dissolves shellac readily ; resin partly ; but 
has no influence on the others. 

Amber and shellac do not dissolve in sulphide of carbon > 
coital becomes soft and expands ; elemi, sandarach and mastic 
dissolve slowly ; v/hile resin and dammar dissolve easily. 

Oil of turpentine dissolves neither amber nor shellac, but 
swells copal ; dissolves dammar, resin, elemi and sandarach 
easily, and mastic very easily. 

Benzol does not dissolve copal, amber and shellac, bui 



120 THE WOEK^HOF COMPAHION. 

does elemi and sandaracli to a I'mited extent ; while dammar, 

resin and mastic offer no difficulty. 

Petroleum ether has no effect on copal, amber and shellac ; 

it is a poor solvent for resin, elemi and sandarach, and a good 

one for dammar and mastic. 

Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves all resins, imparting 

to them a dark brown color, excepting dammar, which takes 

a brilliant red tint. 

Boiling linseed oil has no effect on copal and amber ;; 

ehellac, elemi and sandarach dissolve easily. 

Nitric acid imj)arts to elemi a dirty yellow color ; to mastic^ 

and sandarach a light brown ; it does not affect the others- 
Ammonia is indifferent to amber, dammar, shellac (?) and. 

elemi ; copal, sandarach and mastic become soft, and finally 

dissolve ; while resin will dissolve at once. 

Saws. 

The grand secret of putting any saw in the best possible 
cutting order, consists in filing the teeth at a given angle to 
cut rapidly, and of a uniform length, so that the ]3oints wall 
all touch a straight-edged rule without showing a variation 
of a hundredth pai-t of an inch. Besides this, there should 
be just enough set in the teeth to cut a kerf as narow as it 
can be made, and at the same time allow the blade to work 
freely without pinching. On the contrary, the kerf must not 
be so wdde as to j)ermit the blade to rattle when in motion. 
The very ]3oints of the teeth do the cutting. If one tooth is 
a twentieth of an inch longer than two or three on each side 
of it, the long tooth will be required to do so much more 
cutting than it should, that the sawing cannot be done well. 
Hence the saw goes jum^Ding along, working hard and cutting 
slowdy. If one tooth is longer than those on either side of 
it, the short ones do not cut, although the points may be 
sharp Then putting a cross-cut saw in order, it will pay 
w^ell £o dress the points with an old file, and afterwards, 
sharpen them with a fine whetstona Much mechanical skill 
is requisite to i)ut a saw in prime order. One careless thrust , 
with a file Avill shorten the point of a tooth so much that it , 
will be utterly useless, so far as cutting is concerned. TJie . 
teeth should be set with much care, and the filing should be , 
done with great accuracy. If the teeth are uneven at the . 
points a large flat file should be secured to a block of wood 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 121 

in such a manner that the very points only may be jointed, 
so that the cutting edge of the same may be in a complete 
line or circle. Eveiy tooth should cut a little as the saw is 
worked. The teet]\ of a handsaw, for all sorts of work, 
should be filed ileaming, or at an angle on the front edge ; 
while the back edge^ may be filed fleaming, or square across 
the blade. The boot Avay to file a circular saw for cutting 
wood across the grain, is to dress every fifth tooth square 
across and about ou ^-twentieth of an inch shorter than the 
others, which shou' d be filed fleaming at an angle of about 
forty degrees. 

Sieves. 

It is often desirable to sift powders into different degrees 
of fineness, and very fine sieves are not always to be easily 
had. Those made of hair and wire answer well, but tho 
finest may be made out of the bolting cloth used by millers. 
It may be sewed over a hoo23 of tin or brass, or even a ring 
made of iron wire, or a piece of flexible wood bent into form 
may answer to hold the cloth. 

Shellac. 

Shellac or lac is a resinous substance which, in India, 
flows from certain trees in the form of lucid tears, in conse- 
quence of punctures made upon their branches by a small 
insect. 

It is found in commerce in three forms — siick Iojc, seed lac 
and shellac. Stick lac is the substance in its natural state in- 
vesting the small twigs of the trees, which are generally 
broken off in collecting it. When separated from the twigs 
and partially cleansed it is known as seed lac. Shellac is the 
seed lac after it has been melted, purified and formed into 
thin cakes. 

Shellac is very apt to be adulterated with common resin, 
and hence, unless when a pale lacquer is required, most 
artisans prefer seed lao. When lac is mixed with a little 
resin and colored with vermiUion or ivory black it forms 
sealing wax. 

Shellac is soluble in alcohol but not in turpentine. It is 
also soluble in alkaline solutions, including ammonia. A 
solution of borax in water dissolves it readily, and the result- 
ing solution has b^eu used as a cement, as a varnish^ and as a 



122 ^IHE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. • 

basis for indelible ink. It is much used by hatters as an in- 
soluble cement. 

Clarifying Shellac Solutions. — Much trouble is generally ex- 
perienced in obtaining clear solutions of shellac. If a mixture 
of 1 part shellac with 7 parts of alcohol of 90 i^er cent, is 
heated to a suitable temperature, it quickly clears, but as 
quickly becomes turbid again on cooling. The only practical 
method of freeing the solution from what some writers call 
**wax," and others '* fatty acid," which is present in shellac 
in the proi3ortion of 1 to 5 per cent., and is the cause of the 
turbidity, has hitherto been the tedious process of rej^eated 
filtration. M. Peltz recommends the following method : 
Shellac 1 j^art is dissolved in alcohol 8 parts, and allowed to 
stand for a few hours. Powdered chalk is then added in 
quantity equal to half the weight of shellac in the solution, 
and the latter is heated to 60° R. The greater portion of the 
solution clears rapidly, and the remainder may be clariHed 
by once filtering. Carbonate of magnesia and sul^Dliate of 
baryta were tried in the same way, but were not found equally 
efficacious. 

Bleached Shellac. — When bleached by the ordinary process, 
shellac affords a polish for light woods, etc., that is brittle 
and liable to peel off, while the presence of a trace of chlorine 
causes metallic inlaying to become dim. These defects may 
be avoided by a different mode of bleaching, namely, by 
adding fine granulated bone-black to the solution of shellac 
in 90 per cent, alcohol, until a thin, j^asty mass is formed, 
and exx^osing this for several days to direct sunlight, occa- 
sionally shaking it thoroughly and filtering when sufficiently 
bleached. 

Silver. 

Pure silver is quite soft, and is, therefore, generally alloyea 
with copper to harden it. 

Silversmiths' work, after having been filed is generally 
rubbed, firstly, with a lumj) of pumice-stone and water ; 
secondly, with a slip of water-of-Ayr stone and water ; 
thirdly, a revolving brush with rottenstone and oil ; fourthly, 
an old black worsted stocking with oil and rottenstone, and 
fifthly, it is finished with the hand alone, the deep black 
l^ste^ beiiig given with rouge of great fineness. The coraei;^ 



THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 123 

* 

and edges are often burnished with a steel burnisher, which 
is lubricated with soap and water if at all. 

In this case and in all others of polishing with the naked 
hand, it is generally found that women succeed better than 
men, and that some few, from the peculiar texture and con- 
dition of the skin, greatly excel in the art of polishing. The 
skin should be soft and very slightly moist, as the polishing 
powder then attaches itself conveniently, and there is just 
sufficient adhesion between the hand and work to make the 
operation proc^^vid rapidly. A dry hand becomes hard and 
horny, and is 1 Me to scratch the work, and excess of moist- 
ure is also obj ctionable, as the hand is then too slippery. 

The lAated reflectors for light-houses are cleaned with 
rouge, which is dusted on from a muslin bag, and rubbed 
over them Avitli a clean dry wash-leather. 

A thin film of oxide will nevertheless occasionally form on 
the surface of the reflector, and this is removed with a piece 
of leather, with rouge moistened with spirits of wine, which 
dissolves the oxide, after which the dry rubber is applied as 
above. 

Oxidized Silver. — This is not an oxidization, but a combi- 
nation with suli3hur or chlorine. Sulphur, soluble sulphides, 
and hydrosulphuric acid blacken silver, and insoluble silver 
salts, and particularly the chloride of silver, rapidly blackens 
'oy solar light. Add four or five thousandths of hydrosul- 
phate of ammonia, or of quintisulphide of potassium, to 
ordinary water at a temjDerature of 160^ to 180° Eahr. When 
the articles are dipped into this solution an iridescent coating 
of silver sulphide covers them, which, after a few seconds 
more in the liquid, turns blue-black. Remove, rinse, scratch- 
brush, and burnish when desired. Use the solution when 
freshly prej)ared, or the prolonged heat will precipitate too 
mucli sulphur, and the deposit will be wanting in adherence ; 
besides, the oxidization ol3tained in freshly-prepared liquors 
is always brighter and blacker than that j^i'oduced in old 
solutions, which is dull and grey. If the coat of silver is too 
thin, and the liquor too strong, the alkaline sulphide dissolves 
the silver, and the underlying metal appea^j. In this case 
cleanse and silver again, and use a weaker blacl ^ning solu- 
tion. Oxidized parts and gilding may be put upon the same 
article by the following method : After the whole surface has 
been gilt certain portions are covered with the resist varnish ; 



124 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 

» ■ ' 

silver the remainder. Should the process of silvering by 
paste and cold rubbing be employed, the gilding should be 
very pale, because it is not preserved, and is deeply reddened 
by the sulphur liquor. When this inconvenience occurs 
from a too concentrated liquor, it is partly remedied by 
rapidly washing the article in a tepid solution of cyanide of 
potassium. ?» 

A very beautiful effect is produced upon the surface of 
silver articles, technically termed oxidizing, which gives the 
surface an appearance of polished steel. This can be easily 
effected by taking a little chloride of platinum, heating the 
solution and applying it to the silver where an oxidized sur- 
face is required, and allowing the solution to dry upon the 
silver. The darkness of the color produced varies according 
to the strength of the platinum solution from a light steel 
gray to nearly black. The effect of this process, when com- 
bined with what is termed dead work, is very jpretty, and 
may be easily applied to medals, and similar objects. 

The high appreciation in which ornaments in oxidized 
silver are now held, renders a notice of the following j^ro- 
cesses interesting. There are two distinct shades in use — 
one produced by a chloride and which has a brownish tint, 
and the other produced by sulphur, which has a bluish- black 
tint. To produce the former it is necessary to wash the 
article with a solution of sal ammoniac ; a much more 
beautiful tint may, however, be obtained by employing a 
solution composed of equal parts of sulphate of coj)per and 
pal ammoniac in vinegar. The fine black tint may be pro- 
duced by a slightly warni solution of sulphuret of potassium 
pr podium. 

The chloride of platinum mentioned above is easily pre- 
pgired as follows : Take 1 part nitric acid and 2 parts hydro- 
chloric (muriatic) acid ; mix together and add a little 
platinum ; keep the whole at or near a boiling heat ; the 
metal is soon dissolved, forming the solution required. , 

Old Silveinng. — To imitate old artistic productions made 
of solid silver, the groundwork and hollow j)oi'tions not 
subject to friction are covered with a blackish-red earthy 
coat, the parts in relief remain with a bright lead lustre. 
Mix a thin paste of finely powdered plumbago with essence 
of turpentine, to which a small portion of red ochre may be 
ft^ded to imitate the copper tinge of certain old silverware \ 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 125 

smear tliis all over the articles. After drying, gently rub 
with a soft brush, and the reliefs are set off by cleaning with 
a rag dipped in spirits of w^ine. 

To give the old silver tinge to small articles, stich as 
buttons and rings, throw them into the above paste, rub in a 
bag with a large quantity of dry boxwood sawdust until the 
desired shade is obtained. 

Cleaning Silver. — Silver being a comparatively soft metal, 
should never be rubbed with polishing powders capable of 
cutting or grinding, as the delicate surface, especially if 
engraved or ornamented, will be sure to have the delicate 
lines and w^ork injured. In cleaning silver there are but two 
things that ever require to be removed — dirt and the sulphuref^ 
of silver. The latter appears as a coating on all silver articles'* 
exposed to the air, and especially on silver spoons etc. , which^ 
have come in contact with suliDliur or the yolk of eggs.- 
Sulphuret or sulj)hide of silver is soluble in several salts,^ 
especially cyanide of potassium, hyposulphite of soda, ancj 
several salts of ammonia. Therefore, to clean silver which 
has been blackened with sulphur, the best plan is to dissolve? 
off the sulphide by means of some of the chemicals named. 

For the ordinary purposes of cleansing silver the best 
material is a thin paste of alcohol, 2 parts ; ammonia, 1 part ; 
and whiting enough to make a liquid like cream. This 
should be smeared or painted over the silver and allowed to 
stand until dry. If then brushed off with a very fine brush 
the silver will appear clear and bright. The alcohol and 
ammonia dissolve all dirt and sulphide, which are then ab- 
sorbed by the whiting and removed with it. 

Where really good whiting, that is to say, an article that is 
soft or free from grit, cannot be procured, starch may be 
used. 

Ink Stains, To Remove from Silver — The tops and other 
pcrtions of silver inkstands frequently become deeply dis- 
colored with ink, which is difficult to remove by ordinary 
means. It may, however, be completely eradicated by making 
a little chloride of lime into a paste with water, and rubbing 
it uj)on the stains. 

To Dissolve the Silver off old Plated Goods. — Mix 1 oz. of 
finely ]30wdered saltpetre with 10 oz. sulphuric acid, and 
steep the goods in this mixture. If diluted with water it 
acts on cox3per and other metals, but if very strong it di^- 



126 THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 

solves the silver only, and may be used to dissolve silver off 
l^lated goods without affecting the other metals. 

Silvering. 

Leather, cloth, wood and similar materials are silvered 
hy processes similar to those used for gilding, siher leaf 
being substituted for gold leaf. Metals may be silvered 
either by brazing a thin sheet of silver to the surface, or by 
electro-plating. Frequently, however, it is desired to lightly 
silver a metal surface, such as brass or copi^er, so as to make 
any figures engraved thereon appear more distinct. Clock 
faces, dials and the scales of thermometers and barometers 
are cases in point, and if the surface be well' lacquered with 
white lacquer after being silvered, such a coating is very 
durable. Silvering fluids or i30wders containing mercury 
should never be used unless the articles are to be afterwards 
exposed to a red heat so as to drive off" the mercury. A 
silvering fluid which is very commonly sold to housekeepers 
under the name of Novargeitt or Plate Renovator, consists 
merely of nitrate of mercury or quicksilver. When rubbed 
on a copper cent or a brass stair-rod it gives it at once a 
bright silvery surface, but the brightness soon fades and the 
article, if brass, becomes black a-nd dirty, while if it should 
be a piece of plated ware it will be ruined. Stair-rods and 
similar articles, if well silvered with j)owder No. 1, and then 
lacquered with good lacquer, will present a wliite silvery ap- 
pearance for a long time. Plated goods should be re-coated 
by the electro-i^lating process. 

Silvefring Powder. — 1. Nitrate of silver, 30 grains ; com- 
mon salt, 30 grains ; cream tartar, 200 grains. Mix. Moisten 
wdth water and rub on the. article with wash leather. Gives 
a white silvers appearance to brass, coj^per, etc. 

2. Novarge)d. — Add common salt to a solution of nitrate 
of silver until the silver has all been precipitated. Wash the 
wliite i^recipitate or chloride of silver and add a strong solu- 
tion of hy230suli3liite of soda until the white chloride is 
dissolved. Mix the resulting clear liquid wdth pii3e-clay 
which has been finely powdered and thoroughly washed. 

3. 1 oz. of nitrate of silver dissolved in 1 quart of rain 
or distilled water. When thoroughly dissolved, add a few 
crystals of hyposulphite of soda, which will at first form a 
l)rown precipitate, but which redissolves if suflacient hypc)- 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANIOiN. 127 

stJpliite has been employed. The sohition may be used by 
simply dipping a sponge in it, and rubbing it over the aiiicle 
to be coated. A solution of gold may be made and used in 
the same manner. 

4. Silvei^ing Amalgam. — A coating of silver, heavier than 
can be obtained by the above, may be given by the follow- 
ing process: Precipitate silver from its solution in nitric 
acid by means of cox)i>er. Take of this powder \ oz. ; common 
salt, 2 oz. ; sal ammoniac, 2 oz. ; and corrosive sublimate, 1 
drachm. Make into a paste with water. Having carefully 
cleaned the copper surface that is to be jDlated, boil it in a 
solution of tartar and alum, rub it with the above paste, 
heat red hot and then polish. 

Size. 

The size used for filling the pores of plaster, wood, cloth, 
pai3er, etc., for the pur230se of i3rei3aring it to receive paint 
or varnish, is usually made from glue. Where large quanti- 
ties are used the size is obtained in barrels from the glue 
factory, and as the trouble and expense of concentrating it 
into cakes is thus avoided, it may be obtained at a very cheap 
rate. Size may be made by any one from clip23ings of skins, 
tendons, etc., boiled down to jelly and carefully freed from 
fat. Very fine size is prepared from parchment cliiDi^ings. 
Where size is made from glue the following directions will 
prove useful : 

Sizing for Window Shades. — Stretch the muslin well upon 
the frame. Soak over night one-half 230und of the best white 
giue in 4 gallons water ; in the morning turn it off and boil 
the glue. It must be very thin. Add a small piece of castile 
soap scraped fine. To have it more transi)arent add 2 oz. 
X)o\vdered alum. It must be put on quick, while w^arm. 
Gamboge for j^ainting shades must be dissolved in alcohol; 
carmine in s^jirits of hartshorn. 

Size for Improving Poor Drawing Papei\ — ^Take 1 oz. of 
white glue, 1 oz. of white soap, and \ oz. of alum. Soak the 
glue and the soap in water until they api^ear like jelly ; then 
simmer in 1 quart of water until the whole is melted. Add 
the alum, simmer again and filter. To be applied hot. 

Gold Size. — This is an entirely different article, and is in 
reality a very strong drying oil colored to resemble gold, and 
USt/d fpr cementing gold leaf to articles tliat are to be gilt, 



128 THE Yv'OEKSHOP COMPANION. 

To prepare it, drying or boiled oil is tliickened with yellow 
oclire or calcined red oclire, and carefully reduced to the 
utmost smoothness by grinding. It is thinned with oil of 
turpentine. It improves by age. 

Skins— Tanning and Curing. 

Curing Fur Skins. — The following are the directions given 
in the " Tra2)per's Guide," by Newhouse, an exj^erienced trap- 
per and hunter. 1. As soon as possible after the animal is 
dead, attend to the skinning and curing. The slightest taint 
of putrefaction loosens the fur and destroys the value of the 
skin. 2. Scrape off all superfluous flesh and fat, but be 
careful not to go so deep as to cut the fibre of the skin. 
3. Never dry a skin by the fire or in the sun, but in a cool, 
shady place, sheltered from rain. If you use a barn door for 
a stretcher, nail the skin on the inside of the door. 4. Never 
use *' preparations " of any kind in curing skins, nor even 
wash them in water, but simply stretch and dry them as they 
are taken from the animal. In drying skins it is important 
that they should be stretched tight like a drum-head. 

To prepare Sheep Skins for Mais. — 1. Make a strong soa2> 
lather with hot water and let it stand till cold ; wash the-, 
fresh skin in it, carefully squeezing out all the dirt from tlie^ 
wool ; wash it in cold Avater till all the soaj) is taken out. . 
Dissolve a pound each of salt and alum in 2 gallons of hot ■ 
water, and put the skin into a tub sufficient to cover it ; let 
it soak for 12 hours and hang it over a pole to drain. Wlien 
well drained, stretch it carefully on a board to dry, and. 
stretch several times while drying. Before it is quite dry/ 
si^rinkle on the flesh side 1 oz. ea.cli of finely ].)^ilverized alumi 
and saltpetre, rubbing tliem in vrell. Try if tliO Wool be firm 
on the skin ; if not, let it remain a day or two, th-^ rub aigain 
with alum ; fold the flesh sides together and hang im the 
shade for two or three days, turning them over eardi . da^^ till 
quite dry. Scrape the flesh side with a blunt J nife andlrnb it 
with pumice or rotten stone. Very beautiful mittens^ can be 
made of lambs' skins j^repared in this way. 

2. The following process has been found to succeed vcL-y 
well with sheej^ skins, dog skins and similar hides : Tack 
the skin upon a board with the flesh side out, and then scrape 
with a blunt knife ; next rub it over hard wiiii pulverized 
chalk, until it will absorb no mor^, Then tal^apthe.skm pflt^ 



THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 129' 

from tlie board and cover it with pulverized aliam ; double 
half-way over, with the flesh side in contact ; tlien roll tight 
together and keep dry for three days, after which unfold and 
stretch it again on a l3oard or floor, and dry in the air, and it 
will be ready for use. 

Skms of Rabbits, Cats and small Animals. — Lay the skin 
on a smooth board, the fur side undermost, and fasten it 
down Avith tinned tacks. Wash it over first with a solution 
of salt ; then dissolve 2| oz. of alum in 1 pint of warm water, 
and with a sponge dipped in this solution, moisten the sur- 
face all over ; repeat this every now and then for three da^s* 
When the skin is quite dry take out the tacks, and roUmg 
it loosely the long way, the hair side in, draw it quickly 
backwards and forwards through a large smooth ring until 
it is quite soft, and then roll it in the conti^ary way of the 
skin and repeat the operation. Skins prepared in i&fewaj 
are useful in many exi)eriments, and they make good gloves, 
and chest protectors. 

Stains. 

Stains of different kinds are removed either by dissolving" 
the offensive matter out of the material which it has soiled 
or by destroying it. Ordinary Avashing is a good example of 
;tlie first method ; the removal of fruit stains by means of 
(chloride of lime illustrates the second. Sometimes it is 
inecessary to combine both methods. In practice it is of 
^^urse necessary to avoid the use of any solvent or bleaching 
agent that can injure the material from which the stain is to 
be removed. The following is a list of the stains which most 
frequently occur, and also of the best methods of removing 
them : 

Acids. — Most acids produce red stains in all black or blue^ 
colors of vegetable origin. Wliere the acid has not been so- 
strong as to injure the texture of the fabric, such stains may 
be easily removed by the use of a little potash, soda or am- 
monia. Nitric acid, however, not only turns red, but bleaches^ 
the goods, and it is very difficult to remove stains caused by 
this acid. It is said that the yellow stains formed on brown, 
or black woolen goods by nitric acid can be removed, when 
freshly formed, by moistening them repeatedly with a con- 
■centrated solution of permanganate of potash, and then 
jinsing with water. Yellow stains on the hands may be 



130 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

treated in tlie same way, and tlie dark brown coloration pro- 
duced may then be removed by treating with aqueous solution 
of sulphurous acid. 

Aniline Dyes. — A solution of common sodium sulphite will 
raj)idly remove the stains of r:iost of the aniline dyes from 
the hands. 

Fruit Stains. — Most fruits yield juices which, owing to the 
acid the}^ contain, i^ermanently injure the tone of the dye ; 
but the greater part may be removed without leaving a stain, 
if the spot be rinsed in cold Avater in which a few droj)s of 
aqua ammonite have been placed, before the spot has dried- 
Wine stains on white mateiials may be removed by rinsing 
with cold water, a23plying locally a weak solution of chloride 
of lime, and again rinsing in an abundance of water. Some 
fruit stains yield only to soaping with the hand, followed 
by fumigation with sulphurous acid ; but the latter process 
is inadmissible with certain colored stuffs. If delicate colors 
are injured by soapy or alkaline matters, the stains must be 
treated with colorless vinegar of moderate strength. 

Grease. — 1. Where the fabric will bear it, the best method 
of removing gi*ease spots is simple washing with soap and 
water. No ordinary grease s23ot will resist this. 

2. Chalk, fuller 's-earth, steatite or ''French chalk." These 
should be merely diffused through a little water to form a 
thin paste, which is spread upon the spot, allowed to dry, 
and then brushed out. 

3. Ox-gall and yolk of egg, which have the proj^erty of 
dissolving fatty bodies without affecting prrcei3tibly the 
texture or colors of cloth. The oxgall should be purified, to 
prevent its greenish tint from degrading the brilliancy of 
dyed stuffs, or the purity of whites. Thus prepared it is the 
most effective of all substances known for removing this kind 
of stains, especially for woolen cloths. It is to be diffused 
through its own bulk of water, applied to the spots, rubbed 
well into them with the hands till they disappear, after which 
the stuff is to be washed with soft water. 

4. The volatile oil of turpentine. This will take out only 
recent stains ; for which purpose it ought to be previously 
purified by distillation over quicklime. 

5. Benzine or essence of petroleum is commoniy used for 
removing grease spots ; but these liquids present the incon- 
venience of leaving, in most eases, a brownish aureola. To 



THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 131 

avoid this, it is necessary, whilst the fabric is still saturated, 
and immediately the stain has disappeared, to sprinkle gyp- 
sum or lycopodium over the whole of the moistened surface. 
When dry, the jDOwder is brushed away. 

5. Balls for removing grease spots are made as follows :, 
Take fuUer's-earth, free from all gritty matter ; mix with half 
a pound of the earth, so prepared, half a pound of soda, as 
much soap, and eight yolks of eggs well beaten up with half 
a pound of purified ox-gall. The whole must be triturated 
u2)on a porphyry slab ; the soda with the soaj) in the same 
manner as colors are ground, mixing in gradually the eggs 
and the ox-gall previously beaten together. Incorporate next 
the soft earth by slow degrees, till a uniform thick paste be 
formed, which should be made into balls or cakes of a con- 
venient size, and laid out to dry. A little of this detergent 
being scraj)ed off with a knife, made into a paste with water, 
and applied to the stain, will remove it. 

Ink andiron Mould. — ^Fresh ink and the soluble salts of 
iron produce stains which, if allowed to dry, and especially 
if afterwards the material has been washed, are difficult to 
extract without injury to the ground. When fresh, such 
stains yield rax)idly to a treatment with moistened cream of 
tartar, aided by a little friction, if the material or color is 
delicate. If the ground be white, oxalic acid, employed in 
the form of a concentrated aqueous solution, will effectually 
remove fresh iron stains. 

A concentrated solution of pyrophosj)hate of soda removes 
many kinds of ink from delicate fabrics without altering the 
coloring matters printed upon the tissues, or in any way 
injuring them. 

Mildew. — Make a very weak solution of chloride of lime in 
water (about a heaped-up teaspoonful to a quart of water) ; 
strain it carefully, and dij) the spot on the garment into it ; 
and if the mildew does not disappear immediately, lay'it in 
the sun for a few minutes, or dip it ag-a,in into the solution. 
The work is effectually and speedily done, and the chloride 
of lime neither rots the cloth nor removes delicate colors, 
when sufficiently diluted, and th3 articles well rinsed after- 
ward in clear water. 

Another method is to wet the spot in lemon juice, then 
spread over it soft soaj) and chalk mixed together, and spread 
where the hottest rays of the sun will beat upon it for half 



13^ ^ ,THE WOEKgllOP COMPANION. 

an hour ; if xioi entirely r(^.moved repeat tlie same. Or wei 
in clear lemon Juice and lay in the sun ; or soak for an 
hour or two, and then spread in the sun. 

Nitrate of Silver, — Nitrate of silver, it will be remembered, 
is the base of most of the so-called indelible inks used for 
marking linen in almost every household. Stains or marks 
of any kind made with silver solution or the bath solution of 
photograj)hers may be promiDtly removed from clothing by 
simply wetting the stain or mark with a solution of bi- 
chloride of mercury. The chemical result is the change of 
the black-looking nitrate of silver into chloride of silver, 
which is white or invisible on the cloth. Bichloride of mer- 
cury can be had at the drug stores. It is slightly soluble in 
water, is a rank j)oison, and we would not advise anybody to 
keep it about one's house. 

The immediate and repeated application of a very weak 
solution of cyanide of potassium (accompanied by thorough 
rinsings in clean water), will generally remove these stains 
without injury to the colors. 

Paint. — Stains of oil-paint may be removed t\ 1th bisulphide 
of carbon ; many by means of spirits of turpentine ; if dry 
and old, with chloroform. For these last, as well as for tar- 
spots, the best way is to cover them with olive oil or butter. 
When the paint is softened, the whole may be removed by 
treatment, first, with spirits of turpentine, then wdth benzine. 

Tar. — Tar and pitch produce stains easily removed by suc- 
cessive a]3plications of spirits of turpentine, coal-tar naphtha, 
and benzine. If they are very old and hard, it is well to 
soften them by lightly rubbing with a pledget of w^ool 
dipped in good olive oil. The softened mass will then easily 
yield to the action of the other solvents. Resins, varnishes 
: and sealing w^ax may be removed by w^arming and applying 
; strong alcohol. Care must always be taken that, in rubbing 
the material to remove the stains, the friction shall be ap- 
plied the way of the stuff, and not indifferently backwards and 
forwards. 

Steel— Working and Tempering. 

Most workmen find themselves, at times, compelled to 
forge and temper their own tools, such as drills, cold chisels, 
^,tc. The following hints will be of service : 

Fcn^ging Steel. — ^Beware of over-heating the j)iece to be 



THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 133 

forged, and ^so be careful that the fire is free from sulphur. 
Small drills are easily heated in the flame of a lamp or 
candle ; a Bunsen burner Avill heat sufficiently quite a good 
sized tool. Charcoal makes the best fire for all lands of tools. 
If you are compelled to use common bituminous coal let the 
fire burn until most of the sulphur has been driven off. Do 
not hammer with heavy blows after the steel has cooled. By 
tai^ping it lightly, however, until it becomes black, the close- 
ness of the grain is increased. 

To Restore burnt Cast Steel. — Heat it to a bright cherry red 
and quench it in water. Do this a few times and then forge 
it carefully, and it will be nearly as good as before. The 
various recipes for mixtures for restoring burnt steel are 
worthless. 

Hardening and Tempering Steel. — Heat the steel to a bright 
cherry red and plunge it in water that has been thoroughly 
boiled and then allowed to cool. It will then be "as hard a^ 
fire and water will make it," and too hard for anything 
except hardened bearings, or tools for cutting and drilling 
glass and very hard metals. 

Where very hard tools are required, as, for example, for 
cutting steel or glass, mercury is the best liquid for harden- 
ing steel tools. The best steel, when forged into shape and 
hardened in mercury, will cut almost anything. We have 
seen articles made from ordinary steel, which have been 
hardened and temi)ered to a deep straw color, turned with 
comparative ease with cutting tools, from good tool steel 
hardened in mercury. 

To make it stand work without breaking, it must be 
tempered. To do this, polish the surface on a grindstone or 
with emery paper, so that any change in the color of the 
metal may be easily seen. Then heat the tool until the cut- 
ting edge shows the proper color, as given below. Large 
drills and cold chisels are hardened and tempered at one opera- 
tion, the cutting edge being cooled and hardened while the 
upper jDart is left hot. When taken from the water the heat 
from the shank passes towards the cutting edge and brings 
it to the right degTee of softness. Small drills may be best 
tempered in the flame of a lamp. A spirit lamp is best, 
and the neatest plan is to heat the drill a short distance 
from the point and allow the heat to flow towards the cutting 
edge. As soon as the right color is seen on the edge, the 



134 THE WOEKSnOP COMPANION". 

entire tool is plunged in water and cooled. In tliis way tlie 
sliank is kept soft and tlie tool is not so apt to snajD off. *' 

The following are the degrees of heat (Fahrenheit) and 
corresponding colors to which tools for different purposes 
should be brought : 

Temperature. Color. Temper. 

430° Yery faint yellow. ) Very hard ; suitable for hammer 

450° Pale straw color, j faces, drills for stone, etc. 

470° Full yellow. ^^''^ ^^'\ inelastic ; suitable for 

AQc\o -R-i^^^.r. r shears, scissors, turning tools for 

) hard metal, etc. 
510° Brown with purple ) Suitable for tools for cutting 
spots. Vwood and soft metals, such as 

538° Purjjle. ) plane irons, knives, etc. 

"1 For tools requiring strong cut- 
550° Dark blue. I ting edges without extreme liaid- 

560° Full blue. j ness; as cold chisels, axes, cutlery, 

J etc. 

600° ^^?5^«J^^^^^^^^^^g- } Spring temper ; saws, swords. 

To Tempei" Steel on one Edge. — Red hot lead is an excellent 
thing in which to heat a long 2^1ate of steel that requires 
softening or tempering on one edge. The steel need only to 
be heated at the part required, and there is little danger of 
the metal waiting or siDringing. By giving sufficient time, 
thick portions may be heated equally with thin parts. The 
ends of wire springs that are to be bent or riveted may be 
softened for that purpose by this process, after the springs 
have been hardened or tempered. 

Blazing Off. — Saws and springs are generally hardened in 
various compositions of oil, suet, wax and other ingredients, 
which, however, lose their hardening property after a few 
weeks constant use ; the saws are heated in long furnaces, 
and then immersed horizontally and edgewise in a long trougli 
containing the composition ; two troughs are commonly used, 
the one until it gets too warm, then the other for a period, 
and so on alternately. Part of the comj)osition is willed oil 
the saws with a piece of leather, when they are removed 
from the trough, and they are heated, one by one, over a 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 135 

cleav cok^ fire, until the grease inflames ; this io called 
*' blazing off." 

The composition used by an experienced saw maker is two 
l)oands of suet and a quarter of a pound of beeswax to every 
<»allon of whale oil ; .these are boiled together, and will servo 
for thin Avorks and most kinds of steel. The addition of 
black resin, to the extent of about one i^ound to the gallon, 
makes it serve for thicker pieces, and for those it refused to 
harden before ; but the resin should be added with judgment, 
or the works will become too hard and brittle. The compo- 
sition is useless when it has been constantly employed for 
about a month ; the period depends, however, on the extent 
to which it is used, and the trough should be thoroughly 
cleansed out before new mixture is placed in it. 

The following recipe is recommended : Twenty gallons of 
spermaceti oil ; twenty pounds of beef suet, rendered ; one 
gallon of neatsfoot oil ; one pound of pitch ; three pounds 
of ))]ack resin. 

Tiiese last two articles must be previously melted together, 
and then added to the other ingredients ; when the whole 
must be heated in a proper iron vessel, with a close cover 
fitted to it, until the moisture is entirely evajDorated, and the 
composition will take fire on a flaming body being presented 
to its surface, but which must be instantly extinguished 
p^aiii by putting on the cover of the vessel. 

Whe^ one saws are wanted to be rather hard, but little of 
the grease is burned off; when milder, a larger portion ; 
and for a spring temper, the whole is allowed to burn away. 

AVlieu the work is thick, or irregularly thick and thin, as 
in some springs, a second and third dose is burned off, to 
insure equality of temper at all parts alike. 

Gun-lock springs are sometimes literally fried in oil for 
a considerable time over a tire in an iron tray ; the thick 
parts are then sure to be sufficiently reduced, and the thin 
parts do not become the more softened from the continuance 
of the blazing heat. But for ordinary steel articles which 
are requu-ed to be soft, tough and sjDringy, the usual plan is 
to harden and then dip them in any coarse oil, and heat 
them over the fire until the oil blazes. 

Springs and saws appear to lose their elasticity, after 
hardening and tempering, from the reduction and friction 
they undergo in grinding and polishing. Toward the conclu- 



136 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

sion of the maniifachire, tlie elasticity of the saw is restored, 
princiiDally hj hammering, and partly hy heating it over a 
clear coke fire to a straw color ; the tint is removed h}^ very 
diluted muriatic acid, after which the saws are well washed 
in plain water and dried. 

Welding Steel. — As we have already stated in the article on 
Iron, welding is in reality a species of autogenous soldering. 
And, as in soldering or brazing, it is necessary to keep the 
surfaces that are to be united, free from dirt and oxide, so in 
welding, the surfaces must be perfectly clean or the joint will 
be imperfect. In welding common iron, sand is the flux 
generally used. When it is required to weld steel to iron, 
the steel must be heated to a less degree than the iron, as it 
is the most fusible. The surfaces should be thoroughly 
cleaned before they are brought together. Sal ammoniac 
cleans the dirt from the steel, and borax causes the oxide to 
fuse before it attains that heat Avhich will burn the steel ; 
consequently, a mixture of these two substances forms one of 
the best materials for wielding. 

The best mode of pre})aring this mixture is as follows : 
Take ten parts of borax and one part of sal ammoniac and 
grind them together. Then melt them together, and w^hen 
cold reduce the mixture to fine powder, and preserve in a 
well-stopped jar or bottle. 

To Blue Steel. — The mode employed in bluing steel is 
merely to subject it to heat. The dark blue is produced at a 
temperature of 600°, the full blue at 500*^, and the blue at 
550°. The steel must be finely polished on its surface, and 
then exposed to a uniform degree of heat. Accordingly, 
there are three ways of coloring ; first, by a flame producing 
no soot, as spirits of wine ; secondly, by a hot j)late of iron ; 
and thirdly, by wood ashes. As a very regular degree of heat 
is necessary, wood ashes for fine work are to be preferred. 
The w^ork must be covered over with them, and carefully 
watched ; when the color is safliciently heightened, the ,7ork 
is perfect. 

To Blue Small Steel Articles. — Make a box of sheet iron ; 
fill it with sand and subject it to a steady heat. The articles 
to be blued must be finished and well polished. Immerse 
the articles in the sand, keeping watch of them until they 
are of the right color, when they should be taken out and 
immersed in oil. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 137 

Sulphur. 

Siilpliur or brimstone is a well-known yellow substance 
largely used in the manufacture of matches, gunpowder and 
sulphuric acid. Aside from these uses, which are of interest 
only to large manufacturers, sulphur is emj^loyed for bleach- 
ing, disinfecting, making moulds for j)laster casts, and as a 
comeat for fastening iron bars in stone sockets. 

Suli)liur, when burned, i^roduces sulphurous acid, a gas 
which destroys most vegetable colors and the germs of most 
diseases. As a bleaching agent it is sometimes to be preferred 
to chlorine, as it does not injure the fabrics so much. The 
method of using it is to hang the articles to be bleached in 
a large box or closet in which the suli:)hur is afterwards 
burned. The easiest way to burn the sulphur is to dip 
heavy brown paper in melted sulphur, and burn the matches 
thus produced. In this way the sulphur is ex^iosed to the 
air sufficiently to cause it to continue to burn when once 
ignited. Another very good i^lan is to place the suli)liur on 
a block of iron or brick which has been previously heated to 
above the melting point of sulphur. The sulphur, if then 
ignited, will continue to burn freely, but it is almost im- 
possible to get a cold mass of sulphur to burn freely. 

The same method answers for disinfecting rooms, and 
sulphurous acid vajDors are the least injurious and most easily 
X)rocured of all our disinfectants. The National Board of 
Health, in their recent *' Instructions for Disinfection," say 
that " fumigation with sulj)hur is the only practicable method 
for disinfecting the house. For this purpose the rooms to 
be disinfected must be vacated. Heavy clothing, blankets, 
bedding, etc., should be o^Dened and exposed during the 
fumigation. Close the rooms as tightly as possible, ignite the 
suli^hur, and allow the room to remain closed for twenty-four 
hours. For a room about ten feet square at least two pounds of 
sulphur should be used ; for larger rooms, j)roportionally in- 
creased quantities. " Of course in making arrangements for 
burning the sulphur great care must be exercised so as not to 
set the floor on fire. Safety is best secured by placing the 
burning sulphur over a tub of water or a considerable heap 
of sand or soil. 

In making moulds for taking plaster casts, the sulphur 
miiiit be rendered i3lastic. This is an extraordinary proj)erty 
possessed by this material, and one known only to chemists 



138 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

and experts. When snlplmr is melted and poured into water, 
instead of becoming hard it remains quite soft like dough, 
and in this state it may be pressed into the most minute 
crevices of a medal or other object, so as to take a perfect 
mould of it. From this mould x^laster casts or electrotj2:>es 
may be taken. After a short time the sulphur returns to its 
original hard, yellow, brittle condition. 

As a cement for fastening iron rods in the holes sunk in 
stones, as in the gratings of windows and the iron v/ork of 
fences, sulphur is now extensively used instead of lead. To 
pure sulphur, however, there is this very strong o])jection that 
it is exceedingly brittle and is readily fractured, and even 
reduced to coarse powder by sudden changes of temperature. 
We have seen a huge roll of sulphur broken simply by the 
heat of the hand. This may be avoided, in a measure, by 
mixing the melted suljjhur with some inert ]30wder like sand. 
Iron filings have also been mixed with it for the purpose. 

Tin. 

Tin is a brilliant, silvery -white metal. It is very malleable, 
but its power to resist tensile strains is so small that it is not 
very ductile. When bent it emits a j)eculiar crackling sound, 
arising from the destruction of cohesion amongst its particles. 
When a bar of tin is rapidly bent backwards and forwards 
several times successively, it becomes so hot that it cannot 
be held in the hand. 

Tin is acted upon by caustic alkalies (potash and soda), 
but resists the acids of fruit, etc. ; hence its use for coating 
iron so as to prevent corrosion and rust. Tin plate is sheet 
iron which has been coated with tin. To api3ly the tin the 
iron must be heated, and this is apt, in some cases, to injure 
the articles to be tinned, as it softens the iron, or in other 
words draws its temper. The process described under the 
head **Iron," page 70, enables us to avoid this difficulty. 

Tin forms alloys with various metals, those of lead and 
copper being best known. That with lead is known as solder 
and pewter (see under these heads); that with copper is 
bronze, gun metal or ^'composition." 

Tin and iron may be fused together in all proportions, 
foiming apparently homogeneous alloys. Berthier describes 
one containing 35 '1 per cent, of tin, and another containing 
50 per cent, of tin, both being very brittle and cax^able of 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 139 

being reduced to an imjialpable powder. The affinity of iron 
for tin is also well illustrated in common tin plato, which is 
nothing more than sheet iron 3Ui}oi'licially combined with 
tin, to which a further quantity adheres v/ithout being in 
combination. The alloy of tin and iron ui)on the plate, how- 
ever, is so thin that it can easily be removed by mechanical 
friction, and the amount of tin thus alloyed is j^robably not 
much larger than one-half of one per cent. Tin, when added 
to pig iron, imparts to it a steel-like texture of fine grain and 
great hardness without very great brittleness. Such iron is 
easily fused, and gives a sound like a bell. Indeed, in the 
Great International Exhibition of 1851, there w^as a large 
bell of cast iron stated to be alloyed with a small liro^Dortion 
of tin. According to Karsteu, pig iron with one per cent, of 
• tin yields a somew^hat cold-short wrought iron with about 
0"19 per cent, of tin. Such iron, it is stated, works well 
under the hammer, but at a white heat white vajDors escape. 
With more tin, tlio iro-i in welding gave much w^aste and 
produced cold-short iron, with a fine, white and dull gi'ain. 
For specific purposes, luwever, especially where great hard- 
ness is required, iron with a small amount of tin, not exceed- 
ing 0*3 per cent, seems to be w^ell adapted. Sterling, in 
England, hardens the tops of rails with tin, and according to 
a report of the English Commission for testing iron in regard 
to its adapta,bility for railroad purposes, the best Dundyvan 
bar iron, if alloyed with 0*22 per cent, of tin, supi^orted, 
wdthout breaking, a weight of 23-39 tons to the square inch. 
Ott fused wrought iron with 0*5 per cent, of tin, and arrived 
at results similar to those of Karsten. Whilst at a welding 
heat it w^orked very well, the smith stating that it was some 
of the toughest iron he had ever worked. The grain w^as 
found to be fine and steel-like, with strong lustre and bright 
color. 

Varnish. 

It is in general more economical to buy varnishes than to 
make them on tha small scale. Occasionally, however, our 
readers may find themselves in a situation where a simple 
recij3e for a good varnish will prove valuable. We give a few 
recii^es which are easily followed, and which will undoubtedly 
13rove useful in special cases. 

Basket Ware, Varnish for, — The following varuish for 



140 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

basket Vork is said to dry rapidly, to possess sufficient 
elasticity, and to be applicable with or Avitliout admixture of 
color : Heat 375 grains of good linseed oil on a sand bath 
until it becomes stringy, and a drop placed on a cold, 
inclined surface does not run ; then add gradually 7,500 
grains of cojDal oil varnish, or any other copal varnish. As 
considerable effervescence takes i)lace, a large vessel is neces- 
sary. The desired consistency is given to it, when cold, by 
addition of oil of turjpentine. 

Black Varnish for Optical Work. — The external surfaces 
of brass and iron are generally blacked or bronzed with 
compositions given under the head of lacquers. The insides 
of the tubes of telescopes and microscopes should be coated 
with a dead black varnish so as to absorb the light and pre- 
vent any glare. The varnish that is generally used for this 
purpose consists of lampblack, made liquid by means of a 
very thin solution of shellac in alcohol, but such varnish, even 
when laid on warm metal, is very ai3t to scale off and thus 
produce two serious evils — the exposure of the bright metal- 
lic surface and the deposit of specks on the lenses. It will 
therefore be found that lampblack, carefully ground in tur- 
pentine, to which about a fifth of its volume of gold size or 
boiled linseed oil has been added, will adhere much more 
firmly. The metal should be warm when the varnish is ap- 
plied. Care must be taken not to use too much gold size, 
otherwise the effect will be a bright black instead of a dead 
black. 

Black Varnish for Cast Iron. — 1. For those objects to 
which it is applicable one of the best black varnishes is ob- 
tained by api^lying boiled linseed oil to the iron, the latter 
being heated to a temperature that wdll just char or blacken 
the oil. The oil seems to enter into the pores of the iron, 
and after such an aj)plication the metal resists rust and cor- 
rosive agents very perfectly. 

2. Fuse 40 oz. of asi3haltum and add J a gallon of boiled 
linseed oil, 6 oz. red lead, 6 oz. litharge, and 4 oz. sub^hate 
of zinc, dried and j)owdered. Boil for two hours and mix in 
8 oz. fused dark amber gum and a iDint of hot linseed oil, 
and boil again for two hours more. When the mass has 
thickened withdraw the heat and thin down with a gallon of 
turpentine. 

Green Varnish, — There is a most beautiful transparent 



THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. l4l 

green varnisli employed to give a fine glittering color to gilt 
or other decorated works. As the preparation of this varnisli 
is very little known, an account of it may in all probal^ility 
l^rove of interest to many of our readers. The i^rocess is as 
follows : Grind a small quantity of a i^eculiar pigment called 
*' Chinese blue," along with about double the quantity of 
finely-i^owdered chromate of potash, and a sufficient quantity 
-oi coital varnish thinned vritli turpentine. The mixture re- 
:2uires the most elaborate grinding or incorj^orating of its 
ingredients, otherwise it will not be transparent, and there- 
fore useless for the purpose for Avhich it is intended. The 
** tone " of the color may be varied by an alteration in the 
jn-oportion of the ingredients. A preponderance of chromate 
of potash causes a yellowish shade in the green, as might 
have been expected, and vice versa w4th the blue under the 
same circumstances. This colored varnish will produce a 
very striking effect in japanned goods, paper hangings, etc. , 
and can be made at a very cheap rate. 

Iron Wo7^k, Bright Varnish for. — Dissolve 3 lbs. of resin in 
10 liints boiled linseed oil, and add 2 lbs. of turpentine. 

J/ap Varnish. — Clear Canada balsam, 4 oz. ; turpentine, 
8 oz. Warm gently and shake until dissolved. Maps, draw- 
ings, etc., which are to be 'varnished with this solution, 
should be first brushed over wdth a solution of isinglass and 
allowed to dry thoroughly. 

Mastic. — Mastic, 6 oz. ; turpentine, 1 quart. Tough, hard, 
brilliant and colorless. Excellent for common woodwork. 

Metals — Bright, Varnish for. — In order to make alcoholic 
varnish adhere more firmly to polished metallic surfaces, A. 
Morell adds one part of pure crystallized boracic acid to 200 
IDarts of the varnish. Thus prej^ared it adheres so firmly to the 
metal that it cannot be scratched off with the finger nail ; it ap- 
j^ears, in fact, like a glaze. If more boracic acid is added than 
above recommended the varnish loses its intensity of color. 

Paintings, Varnish for. — A good varnish can be made as 
follows : Mastic, six ounces ; pure turpentine, one-half 
ounce ; camphor, two drachms ; spirits of turpentine, nine- 
teen ounces ; add first the camphor to the turpentine. The 
mixture is made in a w^ater-bath, and w^hen the solution is 
effected, add the mastic and the si3irits of turpentine near 
the end of the operation, then filter through a cotton cloth. 
Ihe varnish should be laid on very carefully. 



142 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

Ihist, Varnish for Preventing. — A varnisli for this purpose 
rnuy be made of 120 parts resin, 180 saiidarac, 50 gumlac* 
Tl^,ej ;sliould be heated gradually, until melted, and thor- 
oitgiily mixed, then 120 parts turpentine added, and sub- 
^^equentlj, after further heating, 180 parts rectified alcoliol. 
After careful ±ilttation>. it Bliould be j^ut into tightlj-corked 
bottles. 

Shellac Varnish— Disaolye good shellac or seed lac in 
alcohol, making the varnish of any consistence desired. 
NoTiS/— SheiJac give^ a pale cinnamon colored varnish. 
Varnish made with seed lac is deeper colored and redder. 
If coloi'less variiisli is desired use bleached shellac, an article 
Xvhich is to be had at most drug stores. 

To-rMm Shell Japan. — Take good linseed oil, one gallon ; 
5im]>*^l\ one-half pound ; boil together until the fluid is brown 
Hind thick. Then strain through a cloth and boil again until 
o£ consistency of pitch, when it is fit for use. Having pre^ 
pared this varnish well, clean the article to be japanned, and 
then brush the parts over with Vermillion mixed with sliella c 
varnish, or Avith drying oil diluted with turpentine. When 
this coat is dry, brush the whole with the amber varnish 
diluted to a proper consistency with turpentine, and then, 
when set firm, put the article into a hot stove to undergo heat 
for as long a time as required to produce the desired effect. 
In some instances as much as two Aveeks may be required, 
after which finish in an annealing oven. 

Turpentine Varnish. — Clear pale resin, 51bs. ; turpentine, 
7 lbs. Dissolve in any convenient vessel. 

Varnish for Violins and similar articles. — Sandarach, 6 oz. ; 
mastic, 3 oz. ; turpentine varnish, one-half pint ; alcohol 1 
gallon. Keep in a tight tin can in a warm place until the 
gums are dissolved. 

Vaimishfor Replacing Turpjentine and Linseed Oil Paints. — - 
Fr. Theis, of Bissendorf, prej^ares a varnish consisting of 100 
parts of resin, 20 parts of crystallized carbonate of soda, and 
50 parts of water, by heating these substances together and 
mixing them with a solution of 24 parts of strong liquor 
ammonia in 250 parts of water. With the mass thus obtained 
the pigments are levigated without the addition of linseed 
oil or turpentine ; the paint dries readily without the aid of 
a drier and looks very well, especially when varnished. The 
paint keeps well, even under water, and becomes very hard. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. ' 143 

The cost is said to be about one-third that of ordinary oil 
paints. 

White, Hard Vamisli for Wood or Metal. — Mastic, 2 oz. ; 
sandarach, 8 oz. ; elemi, 1 oz. ; Strasbourg or Scio turiJentine, 
4l oz. ; alcohol, 1 quart. 

White Varnish for Paper, Wood or Linen. — Sandarach, 
8 oz. ; mastic, 2 oz. ; Canada balsam, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 1 quart. 

White Spirit Varnish. — Rectified spirit, 1 gallon ; gum 
sandarach, 2^ lbs. Put these ingredients into a tin bottle, 
Avarm gently and shake till dissolved. Then add a ]Dint of 
I)ale turpentine varnish. 

Wood, Parisian Varnish for. — To prepare a good varnish 
for fancy woods, dissolve one part of good shellac in three to 
four parts of alcohol of 92 i^er cent, in a water-bath, and 
cautiously add distilled water until a curdy mass sei3arate3 
out, which is collected and pressed between linen; the liquid 
is filtered through j)aper, all the alcohol removed by distilla- 
tion from the water bath, and the resin removed and dried at 
100^ centigrade until it ceases to lose weight ; it is then 
dissolved in double its weight of alcohol of at least 9G 
l)or cent. , and the solution perfumed with lavender oil. 

Wood — Stained, Varnish for. — ^A solution of four ounces of 
sandarac, one ounce gum mastic, and four ounces shellac, in 
one pound of alcohol, to Avhich two ounces oil of turijentine 
is added, can be recommended as a varnish over stained 
woods. 

Varnishing. 

Before beginning to varnish, it is necessary that the 
surface to which it is to be applied, should be perfectly 
free from all grease and smoke stains, for it will be found 
if tills is not attended to, the varnish will not dry hard. 
If the varnish is to be applied to old articles, it is necessary 
to wash them very carefully witlj soap and water before ap- 
X)lying it. When it is wished that the varnish should dry 
quickly and hard, it is necessary to be careful that the var- 
nish should always be kept as long a time as possible before 
being used ; and also that too high a temperature has not 
been used in manufacturing the varnish employed. It is 
likewise customary, when it can be done, to expose the article 
to the atmosphere of a heated room. This is called stoving 
ifc, and is found to greatly improve the appearance of the 



144 THE AVORKSHOP COMPANION. 

work, as well as to cause tlie varnish to dry quickly. After 
the surface is varnished, to remove all the marks lef fc by the 
brush, it is usually carefully polished with finely-powdered 
l^umice stone and water. Afterwards, to give the surface the 
greatest polish it is capable of receiving, it is rubbed over 
with a clean soft rag, on the surface of which a mixture of 
very finely powdered triiDoli and oil has been apiDlied. The 
surface is afterwards cleaned with a soft rag and powdered 
starch, and the last polish is given with the jDalm of the hand. 
This method is, however, only employed when those varnishes 
are used which, when dry, become sufficiently hard to admit 
of it. 

A good surface may be produced on uni^ainted wood by 
the following treatment : Glass-paper the wood thoroughly as 
for French polishing, size it, and lay on a coat of varnish, 
very thin, with a i^iece of sponge or wadding covered with a 
piece of linen rag. When dry, rub doAvn with pumice dust, 
and apply a second coat of varnish. Three or four coats 
should produce a surface almost equal to French polish, if 
the varnish is good and the pumice dust be well ai3plied 
between each coat. The use of a sponge or wadding instead 
of a brush aids in preventing the streaky appearance usually 
caused by a brush in the hands of an unskilled person. 

When varnish is laid on a piece of cold furniture or a cold 
carriage-body, even after it has been spread evenly and with 
dispatch, it will sometimes *' crawl" and roll this way and 
that way as if it were a liquid possessing vitality and the j^ower 
of locomotion. It is sometimes utterly impossible to varnish 
an article at all satisfactorily during cold weather and in a 
cold aj)artment. In cold and damp weather a carriage, chair 
or any other article to be varnished should be kept in a clean 
and warm apartment where there is no dust flying, until the 
entire woodwork and iron-work have been warmed through 
and through, to a temperature equal to that of summer heat — 
say eighty degrees. That temperature should be maintained 
day and night. If a fire is kejit for only eight or ten hours 
during the day, the furniture wdll be cold, even in a warm 
paint-room. Before any varnish is apj)lied, some parts of the 
surface which may have been handled frequently, should be 
rubbed with a woolen cloth dipped in spirits of turpentine, 
so as to remove any greasy, oleaginous matter which may 
have accumulated. Table-beds, backs of chairs, and fronts 



THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 145 

of bureau drawers are sometimes so thoroughly glazed over 
that varnish will not adhere to the surface, any more than 
water will lie smoothly on recently painted casings. The 
varnish should also be warm — not hot — and it should be 
f.pread quickly and evenly. As soon as it flows from the 
brush readily and si3reads evenly, and before it commences 
to set, let the rubbing or brushing cease. One can always 
do a better job by laying on a coat of medium heaviness, 
rather than a very light coat or a covering so heavy that the 
varnish will hang down in ridges. Varnish must be of the 
proper consistency, in order to flow just right and to set 
with a smooth surface. If it is cither too thick or too thin 
one cannot do a neat job. 

When it is wished to varnish drawings, engravings, or 
other i^aper articles, it is usual to give them a coat of size 
before applying the varnish. For the pre^Daration of Size see 
article under that head. 

To Restore Spotted VarnisJi. — If the varnish has been 
blistered by heat or corroded by strong acids, the only 
remedy is to scrape or sandpaper the article and revarnish. 
Spots may often be removed by the following j)rocess : Make 
a mixture of equal parts of linseed oil, alcohol and turpentine, 
slightly moisten a rag with it, and rub the spots until they 
disappear. Then polish the spot with ordinary blotting 
paper. Varnish injured by heat can hardly be restored in 
any other way than by removing it and applying a fresh 
coat. 

Voltaic Batteries. 

In every kind of battery it is essential that the connections 
be bright, and that the metal surfaces which are to be united 
should be brought together under considerable pressure. 
Those batteries which depend for contact upon light springs, 
and the mere placing of Avires in holes, lose a great deal of 
available power. The surfaces ought invariably to be filed 
bright and pressed together by means of screws. We have 
frequently seen the action of the batteries used for medical 
purposes entirely stopped by a thin film of oxide. 

The zincs also should always be thoroughly amalgamated to 
prevent waste. When the zincs are new and uncorroded, 
amalgamation is an easy process. Dip the zincs in dilute 
sulphuric acid (8 parts water and 1 of acid), and rub them 



148 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

witli mercury. The mercury will adhere quite readily and 
render the entire surface brilliant and silvery. But when the 
zincs are old and corroded it will be found that the mercury 
does not adhere to some i^arts. In such cases wash the sur- 
fa(^e of the zinc Avitli a solution of nitrate of mercury and it 
will become coated with amalgam. Once the surface is 
tou-'lied, it is easy to add as much mercury as may be desired 
by simply rubbing on the liquid metal. 

The coating of mercury adds greatly to the durability of 
the zincs, as when so prepared the acid will not act on them 
except when the current is passing, and from the excellent 
condition of the entire surface the power of the battery is 
greatly increased. 

Watch— Care of. 

1. Wind your watch as nearly as possible at same hour 
every day. 2. Be careful that the key is in good condition, as 
there is much danger of injuring the works when the key is 
worn or cracked ; there are more main springs and chains 
broken through a jerk in winding than from any other cause, 
which injury will sooner or later be the result if the key be 
in bad order. 3. As all metals contract by cold and expand 
by heat, it must be manifest that to keep the watch as nearly 
as possible at one temperature, is a necessary piece of atteii- 
ti)!i. 4. Keep the watch as constantly as possible in one 
position, that is, if it hangs by day let it hang by night, 
against something soft. 5. The hands of a pocket chronom- 
eter or duplex watch should never be set backwards ; in other 
watches this a matter of no consequence. 6. The glass 
should never be oi)ened in watches wlii'ch set Ltnd regulate at 
the back. One or two directions more it is of vital importance 
that you bear in mind. On regulating a watch, should it be 
fast, move the regulator a trifle towards the slow ; and if 
going slow, do the reverse ; you cannot move the regulator 
too slightly or too gently at a time, and the only inconven- 
ience that- can arise is having to perform the operation more 
than once. On the contrary, if you move the regulator too 
much at a time, you will be as far, if not further than ever, 
from attaining your object, so that you may reiDeat the move- 
ment until quite tired and disappointed, stoutly blamin?^* 
both watch and watchmaker, while the fault is entirely your 
own. Again, you cannot be too careful in respect ol tuo 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 147 

nature and condition of your watcli-pocket ; see that it l)o 
made of something soft and pliant, such as Avash-leatb.cr, 
which is the best, and also that there be no flue or nap that 
may be torn off when taking the watch out of the pocket. 
Cleanliness, too, is as needful here as in the key before wind- 
ing ; for, if there be dust or dirt in either instance, it Avill, 
you may rely upon it, work its way into the watch, as w^ell 
as wear away the engine-turning of the case. 

Waterproofing. 

Porous goods are made waterproof according to two very 
distinct systems. According to the first the articles are made 
absolutely imi^ervious to water and air by having their pores 
filled up with some oily or gummy substance, which becomes 
stiff and impenetrable. Caoutchouc, paints, oils, melted v^ax, 
etc. , are of this kind. The other system consists in making 
the fabric repellent to water, while it remains quite porous 
and freely admits the passage of air. Goods so prepared 
will resist any ordinary rain, and w^e have seen a very porous 
fabric stretched over the mouth of a vessel and resist the 
passage of water one or two inches dee^D. The following 
recipes have been tried and found good. Most of those found 
in the recipe books are Avorthless. 

To Render Leather Waterproof, — 1. Melt together 2 oz. of 
Burgundy ]3itch, 2 oz. of soft wax, 2 oz. of turpentine, and 1 
pint of raw linseed oil. Lay on with a brush while warm. 

2. Melt 3 oz. lard and add 1 oz. powdered resin. This 
mixture remains soft at ordinary temperatures, and is an ex- 
cellent aj) j)lication for leather. 

Water-proof Canvas for Coveinng Carts, etc. — 9^ gallons 
linseed oil, 1 lb. litharge, 1 lb. umber, boiled together for 21 
hours. May be colored with any i)aint. Lay on with a 
brush. 

To Make Sailcloth Impervious to Watei\ and yet Pliant 
and Bnrahle. — Grind 6 lbs. English ochre with boiled oil, and 
add 1 lb. of black 23aint, which mixture forms an indifferent 
black. An ounce of yellow soap, dissolved by heat in half a 
l^int of water, is mixed while hot with the iDaint. This com- 
position is laid 'Upon dry ca-nvas as stiff as can conveniently 
be done with the brush. Two days after, a second coat of 
ochre and black paint (without any soajD) is laid on, and, 
allowing this coat time to dry, the canvas is finished with a 



148 THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 

coat of any desired color. After tliree days it does not stick 
together when folded up. This is the formula used in the 
British navy yards, and it has given excellent results. We 
have seen a portable boat made of canvas iDrepared in this 
way and stretched on a skeleton frame. 

Metallic Soap for Canvas. — The following is highly recom- 
mended as a cheap and simple j)rocess for coating canvas for 
wagon tops, tents, awnings, etc. It renders it impermeable 
to moisture, without making it stiff and liable to break. 
Soft soap is to be dissolved in hot water, and a solution of 
sulphate of iron added. The sulphuric acid combines with 
the potash of the soap, and the oxide of iron is precipitated 
with the fatty acid as insoluble iron soap. This is washed 
and dried, and mixed with linseed oil. The soap prevents 
the oil from getting hard and cracking, and at the same time 
water has no effect on it. 

The following recipes are intended to be applied to woven 
fabrics, which they leave quite pervious to air but capable 
of resisting water. 

1. Apply a strong solution of soai3, not mere soap suds, to 
the wrong side of the cloth, and when dry wash the other 
side with a solution of alum. 

2. The following recipe is substantially the same as the 
preceding, but if carefully followed in its details gives better 
results : 

Take the material successively through baths of sulphate 
of alumina, of soap and of water ; then dry and smother or 
calender. For the alumina bath, use the ordinary neutral 
sulphate of alumina of commerce (concentrated alum cake), 
dissolving 1 part in 10 of water, which is easily done v>^ithout 
the application of heat. The soap is best prepared in this 
manner : Boil 1 x>art of light resin, 1 part of soda crystals, 
and 10 of water, till the resin is dissolved ; salt the soap out 
by the addition of one-third part of common salt ; dissolve 
this soap with an equal amount of good palm oil soai3 (navy 
soap) in 30 i3arts of Avater. The soap bath should l3e kept 
hot while the goods are jiassing through it. It is best to have 
three vats along side of each other, and by a special arrange- 
ment to keep the goods down in the baths. Special care 
should be taken to have the fabric thoroughly soaked in the 
alumina bath. 

3. Drs. Hager and Jacobsen remark that auring the last 



• THE WCnKSm^-" COMPANION. 149 

few rears very good and cnv.ap waterproof goods of tliis de- 
8criptioii have been manufactured in Berlin, wliicli they 
believe is effected by steeping them first in a bath of sulphate 
of alumina and of copj)er, and then into one of water-glass 
and resin soap. 

Whitewash, 

The process of whitewashing is known by various names, 
such as ''calcimining." ** kalsomining," etc., most of them 
derived evidently from the latin name for lime, which was 
the princiiDal ingredient of all the older forms of white- 
wash. 

Professors of the ''Art of Kalsomining " affect a great 
deal of mystery, but the process is very simple. It consists 
simi3ly in making a whitewash with some neutral substance 
which is made to adhere by means of size or glue. It contains 
no caustic material like lime. Several substances have been 
used with good results. The best is zinc white. It gives the 
most brilliant effect but is the most expensive ^ The next is 
Paris white or sulphate of baiyta. This, when pure, is nearly 
equal to zinc white, but, unfortunately, common whiting is 
often sold for it, and more often mixed with it. It is not 
difficult, however, to detect common whiting either when 
alone or mixed with Paris white. When vinegar, or better 
still, spirits of salt, is poured on whiting, it foams or effer- 
vesces, but produces no effect on Paris white. Good whiting, 
however, gives very fair results and makes a far better finish 
than common lime as ordinarily used. When well made, 
however, good lime whitewash is very valuable for out-houses, 
and places where it is desirable to introduce a certain degree 
of disinfecting action. One of the best recipes for lime 
whitewash is that known as the '' White House '' whitewash, 
and sometimes called '' Treasury Department'' vvhitewash, 
from the fact that it is the recipe sent out by thb Lighthouse 
Board of the Treasury Department. It has been found, by ex- 
perience, to answer on wood, brick and stone, nearly as well 
as oil paint, and is much chea^Der. Slake one-half bushel 
unslaked lime with boiling water, keeping it covered during 
tlie process. Strain it and add a peck of salt, dissolved in 
w arm water : three j)ounds ground rice, put in boiling water 
and boiled to a thin paste ; one-half pound powdered Spanish 
wddting and a jDOund of clear glue, dissolved in warm water ; 



150 THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 

mix these well togetlier and let the mixture stand for several 
days. Keep the wash tlins ]3i'epared in a kettle or portable 
furnace, and, when used, put it on as hot as possible with 
painters' or whitewash brushes. 

Kalsomine, as distinguished from lime whitewash, is best 
suited for the interior of rooms in the dwelling house. To 
kalsomine a good sized room with two coats, proceed as 
follows : 

Select some very clear colorless glue and soak J lb. in water 
for 12 hours. Then boil it, taking great care that it does not 
burn, and this is best done by setting the vessel with the glue 
in a pan of water over the fire. When comj)letely dissolved 
add it to a large jDail of hot water, and into any desired 
quantity of this stir as much of the white material used as 
will make a cream. The quality of the resulting work will 
depend on the skill of the operator, but we may remai'k that 
it is easier to get a smooth hard finish by using three €oats 
of thin wash than by using one coat of thick. If you have 
time for but one coat, however, you must give it body enough, 
In giving more than one coat let the last coat contain less 
glue than the i^receding ones. 

Kalsomine, such as we have described, may be colored 
by means of any of the cheap coloring stuffs. 

The following is recommended as a good kalsomining fluid 
for Avails : White glue, 1 pound ; white zinc, 10 pounds ; 
Paris white, 5 jjounds ; water, sufficient. Soak the glue over 
night in three quarts of w^ater, then add as much water again, 
and heat on a water bath till the glue is dissolved. In another 
pail put the two powders, and jDOur on hot water, stirring all 
the time, until the liquid aj^pears like thick mdk. Mingle 
the two liquids together, stir thoroughly, and apply to the 
wall with a whitewash -brush. 

It is often desirable to ** kill " old whitewash, as it is called, 
as otherwise it v/ould be impossible to get new whitewash 
or paper to stick to the walls. After scraping and washing 
off all lose material give the walls a thorough w^ashing with 
a solution of suli3hate of zinc (2 oz. to 1 gallon of water). 
The lime will be changed to plaster of Paris, and the zinc 
will be converted into zinc white, and if a coat of kalsomine 
be now given it will adhere very strongly and have great 
body. t 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 151 

Wood— Floors. - 

Tli(j following Inetliod of staining floors in oak or walnnt 
colors is Ligbiy commended by the London Fmmiture Gdzettei 
Put 1 oz. \ andyke brown in oil, 3 oz, pearlasli, and 2 drms* 
dragon's blood, into an earthenware pan or large pitcher ; 
jDour on the mixture 1 quart of boiling Water ; stli* with a 
2^iece of wood. The stain may be used hot or cold. The 
boards should be smoothed with a plane and glass -papered ; 
fill up the cracks with plaster of Paris ; the brush should not 
be rubbed across the boards, but lengthwise. Only a small 
piece should be done at a time. By rubbing on one place 
more than another an appearance of oak or walnut is more 
apparent ; when quite dry, the boards should be sized wdth 
glue size, made by boiling glue in water, and brushing it in 
the boards hot. Wlien this is diy, the boards should bo 
papered smooth and varnished with brown hard varnish or 
oak varnish ; the brown hard varnish will wear better and 
dry quicker ; it should be thinned Avitli a little French polish, 
and laid on the boards with a smooth brush. 

Wax for Polls] I big Floors. — To prepare this, 12^ pounds 
yellow wax, rasped, are stirred into a hot solution of 6 j)ounds 
good pearlasli, in rain Avater. Keej^ing the mixture w^ell 
stirred while boiling, it is first quiet, but soon commences to 
froth ; and when the eH'ervescence ceases, heat is stopped, 
and there are added to the mixture, while still stirring, 
pounds dry yellow ochre. It may then be poured into tin 
cans or boxes, and hardens on cooling. When w^anted for 
use, a pound of it is diffused into 5 pints boiling hot water, 
and the mixture well stirred, apj)lied wdiile still hot to the 
floor by means of a paint brush. It dries in a few hours, 
after wdiich the floor is to be i3olished with a large floor brush 
and afterwards wiped wdth a coarse w^oolen cloth A coat o^ 
this wax wiU last six months. 

Wood— Polishing- 

Knotted or cross-grained wood cannot be planed Avith the 
planes used for deal, but wdth a special tool, of which the 
iron is placed at a more obtuse angle. These planes can be had 
in wood or metal, and are in general use by cabinet-makers. 
They are named according to the angle at which the iron is 
placed. For deal and soft w^ood this is 45 degrees, or York 
pitch ; w hile the iron set at 55 degrees, middle pitch, or GO 



152 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION, 

degrees, half pitcli, is used for molding planes for soft and liard 
wood. When the latter is, however, very knotty, it is worked 
over in all directions with a toothing plane, so as to cut across 
the fibres and reduce the surface to a general level. It ift 
then finished by the scraper, often a piece of freshly broken 
glass, but more projDerly a thin plate of steel set in a piece of 
wood, and ground off quite square. The edge is then often 
i^ubbed with a burnisher, to turn up a slight wire edge. 
This will scrape down the surface of the wood until it is 
ready for *^ papering,'* i. e., being further smoothed by glass 
or sandpaper. This is to be rubbed in all directions, until, 
the work has an even surface, and the lines thus j)roduced 
are further reduced by the finest sandpaper, marked 00. 
After this it is rubbed over with a bit of flannel, dipped in 
linseed oil, and alloAved to dry. This oiling is then repeated, 
and the work again set aside for a day or more, until the oil 
is fairly absorbed. 

If the wood be porous it must first he filled, as it is called, 
and for this nothing is better than wdiiting colored so as to 
resemble the v/ood and kej^t dry. Bub the wood with linseed 
oil and then sprinkle it with Avhiting. Rub the latter well in, 
wipe it off carefully and give time to dry. This is far su- 
perior to size. 

The polish — ^French polish — is made by dissolving shellac 
in alcohol, methylated spirits, or evea naphtha. This is 
facilitated by placing the jar or bottle in a w^arm place, on 
a stove or by the fire. Other gums are often added, but are 
not generally necessary. In short, no two polishers use pre- 
cisely similar ingredients, but shellac is the base of all of 
them. The following recipes have been collected from various 
sources more or less reliable : 

1. Shellac, 4 oz. ; alcohol, 1 piixf> 2. Shellac, 4oz. ; sand- 

arac, ^ oz. ; alcohol, 1 pint 3. Finishing polish : Alcohol 

(95 per cent.), ^ pint; shellac, 2 dr.; gum benzoin, 2 dr. ; 
put into a bottle, loosely corking it, and stand it near a firo, 
shaking it occasionally. When cold, add two teasiDoonfnls 
of popj)y oil, and shake well together. 

These, it must be remembered, are polishes to be applied 
by means of rubbers, and not by a brush. Those used in the 
latter way are varnishes, such as are applied to cheap wart\s 
and also to parts of furniture and such articles as are cai'Aed 
and cannot in consequence be finished by rubbing. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. ^ 153 

Tlie i^olislier generally consists of a wad of list rolled 
spirally, tied with twine and covered with a few thick- 
nesses of linen rag. Ai3i3ly a little varaish to the middle of 
the rubber and then enclose the latter in a soft linen rag 
folded twice. Moisten the face of the linen with a little raw 
linseed oil applied to the middle of it by means of the finger. 
Pass the rubber quickly and lightly over the surface of the 
work in small circular strokes until the varnish becomes 
nearly dry ; charge the rubber with varnish again and 
repeat the rubbing till three coats are laid on, Avhen a little 
oil may be ai3j)lied to the rubber and two more coats given 
it. Proceed in this way until the varnish has acquired some 
thickness ; then wet the inside of the linen cloth, before ap- 
plying the varnish, with alcohol, and rub quickly, lightly 
and uniformly, the whole surface. Lastly, wet the linen 
cloth with a little oil and alcohol, without varnish, and rub 
as before till dry. Each coat is to be rubbed until the rag 
appears diy, and too much varnish must not be i3ut on the 
rag at one time. Be also very particular to have the rags 
clean, as the polish depends in a great degree ur)on keeping 
everything free from dust and dirt. 

To insure success the work must be done in a warm room, 
free from dust. 

Turned articles must be brought to a fine smooth surface 
with the finest sandpaper, and the direction of the motion 
should be occasionally reversed so that the fibres which are 
laid down by rubbing one way may be raised up and cut off. 
To apply the polish, which is merely a solution of shellac in 
alcohol, take three or four thicknesses of linen rag and jjlace 
a few drops of polish in the centre ; lay over this a single 
thickness of linen rag and and a drop or tAVO of raw linseed 
oil over the polish. The rubber is then applied with light 
friction over the entire surface of the work while revolving 
in the lathe, never allowing the hand or mandrel to remain 
still for an instant, so as to s^Dread the varnish as evenly as 
possible^especially at the commencement, and paying par- 
ticular attention to the internal angles, so as to j^revent 
either deficiency or excess of varnish at those parts The 
oil, in some degree, retards the evaporation of the spirit 
from the varnish and allows time for the process ; it also 
presents a smooth surface and lessens the friction against 
"^he tender gum. When the varnish appears dry, a second^ 



154 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

third and even further quantities are applied in the same 
manner, working, of course, more particularly upon those 
parts at all slighted in the earlier steps. 

Wood— Staining. 

In preparing any of the tinctures used for staining, it is of 
importance to powder or mash all the dry stufi's previous to 
dissolving or macerating them, and to purify all the liquids 
by filtration before use. Their coloring powers, which 
mainly depend on very accurate combinations of the re- 
quisite ingredients, should always be carefully tested before 
a free use is made of them, and the absorbent properties of 
the materials intended to he stained should be tested like- 
wise. It will be better for inexperienced hands to coat twice 
or three times with a weak stain than only once with a very 
strong one, as by adopting the first mode a particular tint 
may be gradually effected, whereas, by pursuing the latter 
course, an irremediable discoloration may be the result. 
Coarse pieces of carving, spongy end, and cross-grained 
woods, should be previously prepared for the reception of 
stain ; this is best done by putting on a thin layer of varnish, 
letting it dry, and then glass-papering it completely off 
again. Fine work merely requires to be oiled and slightly 
rubbed with the finest glass-paper. Thus prepared, the 
woody fibre is enabled to take on the stain more regularly, 
and to retain a high degree of smoothness. When stain is 
put on with a flat hog-hair tool, it is usually softened by a 
skilful but moderate application of a badger-hair softener. 
The steel comb is chiefly employed for streaking artificial 
oak, and the mottler is used for variegp^ting and uniting llio 
shades and tints of mahoga,ny. Flannels and sj)onges aie 
often used instead of biTishes, but the implements most ser 
viceable for veining or engraining purposes are email badger 
sash tools and sable pencils. The effect i)roduced by a coat 
ox stain cannot be ascertained until it has been allowed suf- 
ficient drying period. 

This process may be used either for improving th^ natural 
color of wood or for changing it so completely as to give it 
the appearance of an entirely different kind of tim'uer. Thus 
a light mahogany may be greatly improved by being made 
barker, an4 there are many other kinds of timber tb^t ^?§ 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 155 

greatly improyecl by a slight change in their color. Tlie fol- 
lowing notes will be of use in the latter direction : 

A solution of asphaltum in spirits of turj^entine, makes 
a good brown stain for coarse oaken work, Avhich is only in- 
tended to bQ varnished with boiled oil. 

When discolored ebony has been sponged once or twice 
with a strong decoction of gall-nuts, to which a quantity of 
iron filings or rust has been added, its natural blackness 
beco.'ues more intense. 

The naturally pale gi'ound and obscure grain of Honduras 
mahogany is often well brought out by its being coated first 
with spirits of hartshorn, and then with oil, which has been 
ting(^d with madder or Venetian red. 

Grayish maple may be whitened by carefully coating it 
with a solution of oxalic acid to which a few drops of nitric 
acid have been added. i 

Half a gallon of water in w^liich i lb. of oak bark and the 
same quantity of walnut shells or peels have been thoroughly 
boiled, makes an excellent improver of inferior rosewood ; it 
is also far before any other of its kind for bringing out 
walnut. 

Raw oil, mixed wdth a little spirits of turpentine, is 
universally allowed to be the most efficacious improver of 
the greater number of materials. Beautiful artificial grain- 
ing may be imparted to various specimens of timber by 
means of a camel-hair pencil, wdth raw oil alone, that is, 
certain portions may be coated tw^o or three times very taste- 
fully, so as to resemble the rich varying veins which con- 
stitute the fibril figures ; while the common, plain parts, 
which constitute the ground shades, may only be once 
coated with the oil, very much diluted with spirits of tur- 
X)entine. The foilowing are a few useful stains : 

Mahogany/. — 1. Water, 1 gallon ; madder, 8 oz. ; fustic, 
4 oz. Boil. Lay on with a brush while hot, and vvdiile wet 
streak it with black to vary the grain. This imitates Hon- 
duras mahogany. 

2. Madder, 8 oz. ; fustic, 1 oz. ; logwood, 2 oz. ; w^ater, 
1 gallon. Boil and lay on while hot. Resembles Spanish 
mahogany. 

3. A set of pine shelves, v>^hich were brushed two or three 
times with a strong boiling decoction of logwood chijis, and 
varnished with solution of slieljac in alcohol; appear almost 



156 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

like mahogany both in color and hardness. After washing 
with decoction of logwood and drying thoroughly, they re- 
ceived two coats of varnish. They were then carefully sand- 
papered and polished, and received a final coat of shellac 
varnish. 

Imitation Ebwiy. — There are two processes in nse for giving 
to very fine grained wood the appearance of ebony. One is 
a mere varnish, and may be ai3plied in a few minutes, as it 
dries very rapidly. Either French polish, made black with 
any fine coloring matter, or good *' air- drying black varnish," 
may be applied. This, however, gives only a superficial 
coloring, and when the edges and corners of the work wear 
off, the light-colored wood shows. The other method is as 
follows : Wash any compact wood with a boiling decoction 
of logwood three or four times, allowing it to dry between 
each api3lication. Then wash it with a solution of acetate of 
iron, w^hich is made by dissolving iron filings in vinegar. 
This stain is very black and penetrates to a considerable 
depth into the wood, so that ordinary scratching or chii32^iiig 
does not show the original color. Some recipes direct the 
solutions of logwood and iron to be mixed before being ajD- 
plied, but this is a great mistake. 

Black Wahiut Stain. — 1. Take asphaltum, pulverize it, 
place it in a jar or bottle, pour over it aboiit twice its bulk 
of turpentine, put it in a vfarm place, and shake it from time 
to time. When dissolved, strain it and apply it to the wood 
with a cloth or stifi' brush. If it should make too dark a 
stain thin it with turi^entine. This will dry in a few hours. 
If it is desired to bring out the grain still more, ajDjDly a 
mixture of boiled oil and turpentine ; this is better than oil 
alone. Put no oil with the asphaltum mixture or it will 
dry very slowly. When the oil is dry the wood can be 
polished with the following : Shellac varnish, of the usual 
consistency, 2 parts ; boiled oil, 1 part. Shake it well before 
using Apply it to the wood by putting a few drops on a 
cloth and rubbing briskly on the v>^ood for a few moments. 
This polish works well on old varnished furnitare. 

2. The ajDpearance of walnut may be given to white woods 
by painting or sponging them with a concentrated warm 
solution of permanganate of potassa. The efiect is different 
on different kinds of timber, some becoming stained very 
rapidly, others requiring more time for the result. The perr 



THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 167 

manganate is decomposed bj the woody fibre ; brown per- 
oxide of manganese is jDrecipitated, and the potash is after- 
wards removed by washing with water. The wood, when 
dry, may be varnished. 

Broivn Stain. — Paint over the wood with a sohition made 
by boiling 1 part of catechu (cntch or gambier) with 30 parts 
of water and a little soda. This must be allowed to dry in 
the air, and then the wood is to be painted over with another 
solution made of 1 part of bichromate of potash and 30 parts 
of water. By a little difference in the mode of treatment 
and by varying the strength of the solutions, various shades 
of color may be given with these materials, which will be 
permanent and tend to preserve the wood. 

Staining Oak. — According to Neidling, a beautiful orange- 
yellow tone, mu.ch admired in a chest at the Vienna Exhibi- 
tion, may be imjDarted to oak wood by rubbing it in a warm 
room with a certain mixture until it acquires a dull polish, 
and then coating it after an hour with thin polish, and re- 
peating the coating of polish to im]3rove the depth and 
brilliancy of the tone. The ingredients for the rubbing 
mixture are about three ounces of tallow, three-fourths of an 
ounce of wax, add one pint of oil of turpentine, mixed by 
heating together and stirring. 

Darkening Oak Framing. — Take one ounce of carbonate of 
soda, and dissolve in half X3int boiling water ; take a sponge 
or piece of clean rag, saturate it in the solution and j^ass 
gently over the v/ood to be darkened, so that it is wet evenly 
all over ; let it dry for 24 hours. Try first on an odd jDiece 
of wood to see color ; if too dark, make the solution weaker 
by adding more water ; if not dark enough, give another 
coat. This may always be kept ready for use in a bottle 
corked up. 

Imitation Rosewood. — Boil one-half ^jound of logwood iri 
three pints of water till it is of a very dark red ; add one-half 
ounce of salt of tartar. Stain the work with the liquor while 
it is boiling hot, giving three coats ; then, with a painter's 
graining brush, form streaks with the following liquor : Boil 
one-half-pound of logwood chiiDs in two quarts of water ; add 
one ounce of pearlash, and apply hot, 



158 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

Zinc. 

Zinc, when cast into plates or ingots, is a brittle metal, 
easily broken b}^ blows from a hammer. In this state it is 
evidently somewhat x:>orous, as its specific gravity is only 6*8, 
while that of rolled zinc rises as high as 7*2. Zinc, when 
lieated to 212° Fah., or over, becomes malleable and ductile, 
and w^hen rolled into sheets it becomes exceedingly tongh and 
does not regain its brittle character on cooling. Hence, sheet 
zinc has come into very extensive nse in the arts. 

To Fulveinse Zinc — Zinc becomes exceedingly brittle when 
heated to nearly its melting point. To rednce it to i3owder, 
therefore, the best plan is to pour melted zinc into a dry and 
warm cast-iron mortar, and as soon as it shows signs of 
solidifying pound it Avith the pestle. In this w^ay it may be 
reduced to a very fine j)owder. 

Black Varnish for Zinc. — Professor Bottger prepares a 
black coating for zinc by dissolving two parts nitrate of cop- 
per and three parts crystallized chloride of x?opper in sixty- 
four i)arts of water, and adding eiglit parts of nitric acid. This, 
however, is quite exj)ensive ; and in some j^laces the copper 
salts are very difficult to obtain. On this account Puscher 
prepares black paint or varnish with the following simple 
ingredients : Equal j^arts of chlorate of potash and blue 
vitriol are dissolved in thirty-six times as much warm water, 
and the solution left to cool. If the sulphate of copper used 
contains iron, it is precipitated as a hydrated oxide, and can 
be removed by decantation or filtration. The zinc castings 
are then immersed for a few seconds in the solution until 
quite black, rinsed ofi" with water, and dried. Even before it 
is dry, the black coating adheres to the object so that it may 
be wiped dry with a cloth. A more economical method, 
since a much smaller quantity of the salt solution is required, 
is to ap]3ly it repeatedly with a sponge. If copper-colored 
spots appear during the operation, the solution is applied to 
them a second time, and after a while they turn black. As 
soon as the object becomes equally black all over, it is 
washed with water and dried. On rubbing, the coating ac- 
quires a glittering appearance like indigo, which disap]:)ears 
on applying a few drops of linseed-oil varnish or '' way 
oilk," and the zjijc heis theji a deep black cplor pud glojss. 



Il^DEX. 



Abyssinian gold, 9. 

Accidents, general rules In case of, g. 

Acids, stains of, to remove, 130, 

Adhesive paper, loi. 

Alabaster, 11, 108. 

to work, II. 

to polish, II. 

to clean, 1 1. 

cement for, 12. 
\lbata, composition of, 13. 
Alcohol for making varnish, 12. 

as a stimulant in cases of accident, 10. 
Alloy for filling holes in cast iron, 13. 

for uniting iron, steel and biass, 13. 

general rules for making, 12. 
Aluminium, bronze, 13. 

silver, 13. 
Amalgam, Boettger's, 13. 

copper, 13. 

for silvering globes, etc., 13. 

for electrical machines, 13. 

silver, for mirrors, 98. 
Amber, working and polishing, 15. 

cement for, 16. 

imitation, 16. 

solvents for, 119. 
Aniline inks, 67. 

stains, to remove, 130. 
Annealing copper, brass, etc., 16. 

steel, 133. 
Anti-attrition lubricator, 90. 

metal. Babbitt's, 14. 
Anti-friction metais, Belgian, 14. 

ch-ap, 14. 
Antique bronze, 26. 
Antiseptic preparations, 17. 
Aquarium cement, 29. 
ArniKninn cement, 29. 
Arsenic, antidote for, iii. 
Arsenical soap, 17. 

powder, 17. 
Axle grease, Booth's, 90. 
Bibbitt metal, how to make and apply, 14. 
Balls for removing grease, 131. 
Barometer paper, 102. 
Basket ware, varnish for, 139. 
Batteries, voltaic, 145. 

zincs for, 146, 

connections for, 145. 
Beeswax, to bleach, 17. 
Bcl<Tian antifriction metals, T4. 
l*>eitinii, leather, cement for, 35. 
Benj^'al h^ht, fc^f. 



Blackboards, to make, 18. 

crayons for, 40. 
Blazing off steel .springs, 134. 
Bleaching by means of sulphur, 137, 

ivory, 78. 

shellac, 122. 

skeleton leaves, 84. 
Blue color, to remove from iron and 

steel, 76. 
Blue light, 84, 86. 
Bluing of steel, 136. 
Booth's axle grease, 90. 
Boxes, metal for lining, 14. 
Brass, 18.^ 

to finish, 19. 

to color and varnish, 19. 

to bronze, 19, 25. 

to blacken, 20. 

to whiten, 21. 

to deposit by electricity, ax. 

to coat with copper, 22. 

to coat with silver, 126. 

to clean, 22. 

to lacquer, 22. 
Brazing, 22. 
Brightening Iron, 76. 
British plate, composition of, 13 
Bronze, aluminium, 13. 
Bronze for brass, 25. 

antique, 26, 105. 
Bronzing, 25. 
Bronzing liquid, 26. 
Bronzing wood, leather, paper, etc., 26. 
Browning gun barrels, 60. 
Bro%vning mixture for gun barrels, 60. 
Buckland's cement, 29. 
l)uffing metals, etc., 94, 95. 
Burnishing metals, 94. 
Burns, cure for, 27. 
Calcimine, 149. 
Canvas, to make waterproof, 147. 

metallic soap for, 148. 
Cap cement, Faraday's, 31. 
Carmine ink, French process for mak- 
ing, 67. 
Case-hardening iron, 73. 
Casein and .soluble glass cement, 30. 
Casein Mucilage. 30. 
Cast steel — see steel. 
Catgut, how to make, 27. 
Cats, to cure skins of, 129. 
Cement for alabaster, 12, 

aquarium, 2p, 



160 



INDEX. 



Cement, Armenian, 29. 

Buckland's, 29. 
• cheese, 30. 

Chinese (schio-liao), 30. 

Faraday's cap, 31. 

electrical, 31. 

for glass, earthenware, etc., 31. 

glass, 31. 

gutta percha, 33, 

iron, for pipes, etc., 33. 

Japanese, 34. 

for kerosene oil lamps, 34. 

labels, 34. 

for uniting leather and metal, ^ -. 

for leather belting, 35. 

litharge and glycerine, 35. 

for attaching metal to glass, 36. 

Paris, for shells, etc., 36. 

porcelain, 37. 

soft, 37. 

soluble glass, 37, 

Sorel's, 38. 

steam boiler, 38. 

transparent, 38. 

turner's, 38. 

Wollaston's, 38. 

sulphur, 138. 
Cements, general rules for using, 28. 
Chalk for polishing, 11/ 

prepared, 114. 
Chatham light, 89. 
Cheese cement, 30. 
Chinese cement, 30. 

glue, 30. 
Chlorate of potassa, caution, 87, 
Cleaning engravings, etc., 105. 

glass, 57. ^ 

glass for mirrors, 97. 

looking glasses, 99. 

ivory, 78. 

marble, 91. 

silver, 125. 
Cliche metal, 15. 
Cloth, to make waterproof, 147. 
Clothes on fire, what to do, 48. 
Cock metal 13. 

Coffee as a stimulant in case of acci- 
dent, 10. 
Cold process for zincing iron, 75. 

tinning iron, 75. 
Color of tempered steel, 134. 
Connections for voltaic batteries, 145. 
Copal, solvents for, 119. 
Copper, 38. 

amalgam, how to make, 13. 
^ to polish, 38. 

to weld, 39. 
Qoppering iron or steel, 39. 



Coral,. artificial, 40. 
Cork, to cut, 40. 

to make airtight, 40. 
Corrosive sublimate, antidote for, 112, 
Crayons, for blackboards, 40. 

to preserve, 41. 
Creases, to take out of engravings, 

etc., 102. 
Crocus martis, for polishing, 115. 
Curing and tanning skins, 128. 
Curling metal surfaces, 41. 
Cuticle, liquid, 41. 
Dammar, solvents for, 119. 
Demons, tableaux light for, 86. 
Dials, painting hours on, loi. 
Diamond for drilling glass, 56. 
Disinfecting by sulphur vapors, 137. 

by pastils, etc.. 50. 
Drawing paper, size for, 127. 

to mount, 102. 
Dresses, how to make fire-proof, 48. 
Drilling glass, 55. 
Dumoulin's liquid glue, 32. 

Ebony, imitation, 156. 
Electrical amalgam, 13. 

Boettger's, 13. 
Electrical cement, 31. 
Electrum, composidon of, 13. 
Elemi, solvents for, 119. 
Elutriation, how to perform, 113. 
Engravings, to take creases out of, io«, 

to take water stains out of, 105. 
Eraser for ink; 70. 
Etching copper, 42, 

varnish for, 42. 

acid for, 42. 

steel, liquid for, 43. 

glass, 44. 
Eye, accidents t<->, 44. 

to remove particles from, 45 

lime in, 46. 

Faraday's cap cement, 31. 
Fire-proof dresses, 48. 
Fire, clothes on, 48. 
Fires, to prevent, 46. 

what to do in case of, 47. 
Fluxes for solders, 24. 
Fly papers, to make, 49. 
Forging iron, 72. 
French polish, 152, 
Freezing mixtures, various kinds, 50. 
Freezing, to prevent ink from, 69. 
Fruit stains, to remove, 130. 
Fuller's earth for scouring, 131. 
Fumigating pastils, how to make ^'* 

use, 50, 
Furs^ skins, curing, jgS, 



INDEX. 



161 



jTusible metals, how to make and use, 15. 

Ghosts, tableaux light for, 86. 

Gilded ware, cleaning, 80. 

Gilding metals, best methods, 51. • 

with gold leaf, 52. 

picture frames, 52. 

wood, 54. 

steel, 54. 
Glass, soluble, cement, 30. 

cement, 31. 

earthenware, etc., cement for, 31. 

working, 54. 

cutting, 54. 

cutting without a diamond, 55. 

drilling, 55. 

how to turn and bore in a lathe, 55. 

stoppers, fitting, 56. 

stoppers, to remove, when tight, 56. 

to powder, 57, 

grotind, to imitate, 57. 

vessels, to cleanse, 57. 

paper, 103. 

paper, waterproof, 103. 
Glassware, to pack, 59. 
Glue, how to choose, 31. 

how to prepare, 32. 

Chinese, 30. 

liquid, 32, 

marine, 35. 

mouth, 33. 

portable, 33. 

Gold, Abyssinian, 9. 

gilding with, 52. 

ink, 68. 

lacquer, 82. 

size, preparation of, 127. 
Grass, dried, to stain, 59. 
Grease stains, to remove, 130. 
Green light, 85, 86. 
Ground glass, to imitate, 57. 
Guns, to improve the shooting of, 59. 

to keep barrels from rusting, 60. 

to brown the barrels of, 60. 

varnish for barrels, 61. 
Gutta percha cement, 33. 
Gypsum, 108. 

Handles of kni\es to fasten, 62. 

Hard solder, 23. 

Hardening copper, brass, etc., 16. 

steel, 133. 
Heat used in forging iron, 72. 
Hygrometric or barometer paper, 102. 

Indelible aniline ink, 68. 

Indian ink, 68, 
Indestructible ink, 69. 
Indian ink, how to choose, 63, 



» 



Ink, different kinds of, 62. 

rules for selecting and using, 63. 

black, recipe for, 66. 

Runge's black ink, 66. 

blue ink, 66. 

carmine ink, French process, 67. 

red ink, 67. 

aniline inks, general formula, 67. 

aniline ink, violet, 67. 

aniline ink, blue, 67. 

aniline inks, aqueous solutions, 67. 

gold, 68. 

silver, 68. 

marking ink for linen, 6S. 

indelible aniline, 08. 

indelible Indian, 68. 

indestructible, 69. 

that will not freeze, 69. 

sympathetic or secret, 69. 

eraser, 70. 

pencils, 106. 

stains, to remove from silver, 125. 

stains, to remove, 131. 
Inks for rubber stamps and stencils, 70. 
Inlaying, simple method of, 71. 

imitation, 71. 
Iron cement for joints, 33. 

forging, different heats employed 
for, 72. 

welding, 72. 

case hardening, 73. 

rust, to prevent, 74. 

zincing, 74. 

cold process for zincing, 75. 

tinning, 75. 

tiiming in the cold, 75. 

biightening, 76. 

to remove blue color from, 76. 

mould, to remove, 131. 

and tin, alloys of, 139. 
Ivory, character of as regards work, 76. 

working and polishing, methods 
for, 77. 

bleaching and cleaning, 78. 
Ivy, poisoning with, remedy, 113. 

Japanese cement, 34. 
Javelle water, 79. 
Jewelry, cleaning, 80. 

Kalsomine, T49. 

Kerosene oil lamps, cement for, 34. 

Labels, cement for, 34. 

Lac, different kinds of, 121. 

Lacquer, method of using, 8i- 

deep gold, 82. 

bright gold, 82. 

pale gold, 82. 

used by A, Ross, 82. 



1{V2 



INDEX. 



Lacquer, preservation of, 83. 

Laundry gloss, 83. 

Leather belting, cement for, 35. 

Leather and metal, cement for, 35. 

Leather, to make watei^proof, 147. 

Leaves, skeleton, 83. 

Lights, signal and colored, 84. 

Bengal, 84. 

blue, 84, 86. 

red, 85, 86. 

white, 85, 86. 

crimson fire, 85. 

green, 85, 86. 

for indoor illumination, 85. 

phosphorous, 88. 

photographic, 88. 

Chatham, 89. 
Lit]i?rge and glycerine cement, 35. 
Looking glasses, care oi, 99. 

how to clean, 99. 
Lubricators, rules for selecting, 89. 

plumbago, 90. 

anti-attrition, 90. 

fine lubricating oil, 90. 

Booth's axle grease, 90. 
Magnesium light, 85. 
Mahogany, to improve, 155. 

artificial, 155. 
Maple, to whiten, 155. 
Maps, varnish for, 141. 
Marble, composition of, 90. 

method of working, 91. 

method of polishing, 92. 

substances wLich injure it, 91. 

to clean, 91. 

sculpture, how finished, 93. 
Marine glue, 35. 
Marking ink, 68. 
Mastic, solvents for. 119. 
M ats, skins cured for, 1 28. 
Mercury, bichloride or corrosive sub- 
limate, 112. 
Metal, fusible, 15, 

anti-friction, 14, 

Babbitt, 14. 
Metal, to attach to glass, 36. 
Metallic soap for canvas, 148. 
Metals, to polish, 94, 95, 96. 
Metals, bright, pamting, loi. 
Mexican onyx, 90. 
Mildew, to remove, 131. 
Mirrors, to make, 96. 

for optical purposes, 96. 
silver amalgam for, 98. 
care of, 99. 
Mono-chromatic light, 86. 
Moulds made of sulphur, 138. 
Mouth glue, 33. 



Mucilage, casein, 30. 
Murderers, tableaux, light for, 86. 
Newton's fusible metal, 15. 
Nickel, characters of, 99. 

to deposit without battery, 100. 
Noise, prevention of, 100. 
Novargent, 1:^6. 

Oak, to stain, 157. 
to darken, 157. 
Oil, fine, for lubricating, 90. 
Oilstone powder for polishing, 116, 
Onion's fusible metal, 15. 
Opium poisoning, remedy for, 112. 
Oriental alabaster, 11. 
Oxidized silver, 123. 

Paint, to remove stains of, 132. 
Painting bright metals, loi. 
Painting metal dials, 101. 
Paper, various uses of, loi. 

adhesive, loi. 

barometer, 102. 

creases, to take out of, 102. 

drawing, to mount, 102. 

glass paper, 103. 

to prepare for varnishing, 103. 

pollen powder or paper powder, 104. 

tracing, 104. 

transfer, 104. 

to remove water stains from, ^05. 

waxed, 105. 

for pillows, 107. 

size for, 127. 
Paris cement for shells, etc., 36. 
Paris green, antidote for, 111. 
Paste, recipes lor, 36. 
Pastils, fumigating, 50. 
Patina or artificial bronze, 105. 
Patterns, to trace, 105. 
Pencil marks, to fix, 106. 
Pencils, ink, to make, 106. 
Peroxide of ircn for polishing, 116. 
Pewter, 15, 107. 

hardened, 107. 

for caps and polishing tools, 107. 
Phosphorous light, 88. 
Phosphorous as poison, antidote, 112. 
Photographic light, 88. 
Pillows for sick room, 107. 
Plaster-of-Paris, preparation of, 108. 

to harden, 108. 

to cast, ic8. 
Plate renovator, 126. 
Plating without battery, 126. 

nickel, 100. 
Platinum, solder for, 25. 
Plumbago as a lubricator, 90. 
Poisons, cautions in regard to, 109. 



INDEX. 



163 



Poisons, acids, no. 

oxalic acid, no. 

Prussic acid, in. 

arsenic or Paris green, in. 

corrosive sublimate, 112. 

phosphorous, 112. 

opium, 112. 

strychnine, 113. 

ivy poisoning, 113. 

stings, 113. 
Polishing smoothing irons, 83. 

metals, 94. 

powders, selection of, 113. 

elutriation of, 113. 

chalk or whiting, 114. 

prepared chalk, 114. 

crocus or rouge, 115. 

Andre V Ross's mode of prepar- 
ing, 115- 

oilstone powder, 116. 

pumice-stone powder, 116. 

putty powder, 117. 

Vienna lime, 118. 
Polishing powder, Lord Ross's mode of 

preparing, 116. 
Polishing powders, oilstone powder, 116. 

pumice-stone powder, 117. 

putty powder, 117. 

Vienna lime, 118. 
Polishing wood, 151. 

in the lathe, 153. 
Pollen powder or paper, 104. 
Porcelain cement, 37. 
Powders, polishing, 113. 
Printing in gold, silver and bronze, 52. 
Prussic acid, antidote for, ni. 
Pumice-stone powder, 117, 
Putty powder for polishing, 117. 
Queen's metal, composition of, 15. 
Rabbits, to cuie skins of, 129. 
Red ink, 67. 
Red light, 85, 86. 
Resins, characters of, 119. 
Rosewood, imitation, 157. 
Ross, Andrew, lacquer used by, 82. 

method of preparing rouge for polish- 
ing, 115- 
method of preparing putty pow- 
der, n8. 
Ross, Lord, method of preparing rouge 

for polishing, 116. 
Rouge for polishing. 115. 
Rust and corrosion of iron, to prevent, 74. 

Sailcloth, to make impervious to water, 147. 
Sandarach, solvents for, 119. 
Saws, how to put in order, 120. 
Saws, tempering, 135. 



Secret writing, ink for, 69. 

Seed lac, 121 

Sheep skins for mats, curing of, 128. 

Shclkc, character of, 121. 

adulteration of, 121. 

solvents lor, n^, 121. 

clarifying solutions ot, 12a. 

bleaching, 122. 

varnish, 142. 
Sieves, very fine, to make, 12 1 
Silver, aluminium, 13. 

characters of, 122. 

for solder, 23. 

ink, 68. 

amalgam for mirrors, gh» 

how hardened, 122. 

oxidized, 123. 

to clean, 125. 

to imitate old, 124. 

to remove ink stains from, 125. 

to dissolve off plated ware, 125. 

to work and polish, 122. 

nitrate, to remove stains of, 132. 
Silvering mirrors, amalgam for, q6, 

inside of globes, etc., 13. 

leather, etc., 126. 

powder, T26. 

solution, 127. 

amalgam for metals, 127, 
Silversmiths' work, how finished, I29» 
Size, glue, how to make, 127. 

for window shades, 129. 

for drawing paper, 127. 

gold, 127. 
Sizing for window shades, 127. 
Skeleton leaves, 83, 
Skins, tanning and curing, 128. 
Skins, sheep, curing for mats, 128. 

of rabbits, cats, etc., to cure, 129, 
Soft cement, 37. 
Solder, soft, composition of, 23. 

hard, how to make, 24. 

flux for, 24. 

wire, 24. 

for platinum, 25. 

German silver, 25, 
Soldering, 22 
Soldering fluid, 23. 
Soluble glass cement, 37. 
Sorel's cement, 38. 
Speculum metal, how to make, 15. 
Spirituous liquors as a stimulant, 10. 
Spotted varnish, to restore, 145. 
Springs, to temper, 135. 
Staining wood, 154. 
Stains, how removed, 129. 

acids, 129. 

aniline dyes, 130, 



164 



INDEX. 



Stains, fruit, 130. 

grease, 130. 

ink and iron mould, 131. 

mildew, 131. 

nitrate of silver, 132. 

paint, 132. 

tar, 132. 
Stamps, ink for, 70. 
Steam boiler cement, 38. 
Steel, forging, 132. 

burnt, to restore, 133. 

to gild, 54. 

to harden, 133. 

to temper, 134. 

blazing off, 134. 

welding, 136. 

to blue, 136. 

springs, to temper, 135. 
Stencils, ink for, 70. 
Stick lac, 121. 

Stimulants, use of in case of accident, 10. 
Stings of insects, remedy for, 113. 
Stoppers, glass, to fit, 56. 

to remove tight, 56. 
Strychnine as a poison, antidote for, 13. 
Sulphur, 137. 

bleaching by means of, 137. 

disinfecting by means of, 137. 

as a cement, 138. 

for making moulds, 138. 
Sympathetic ink, 69. 
Tanning and curing skins, 128, 
Tar, to remove stains of, 132. 
Tempering steel on one edge, 134. 

steel, color indications, 134. 

steel springs, 135. 

steel saws, 135. 
Tin, 138. 

how corroded, 138. 

alloi^s of, 138. 

and iron, 139. 
Tinning iron, 75. 
Tracing paper, 104. 
Transfer paper, 104. 
Transparent cement for glass, 38. 
Turner's cement, 38. 
Tutty powder or putty powder, 117. 
Type metal, 15. 
Varnish, 139. 

for browned iron, 61. 

for basket ware, 139. 

black, for optical work, 140. 

black, for cast iron, 140. 

green, 140. 

for bright iron work, 141. 

for maps, 141. 

mastic, 141. 



Varnish for bright metals, 141. 

for paintings, 141. 

for preventing rust, 142. 

shellac, 142. 

tortoise shell, Japan, 142. 

turpentine, 142. 

for violins and similar articles, 142. 

for replacing turpentine and linseed 
oil paints, 14''. 

white, hard, for wood or metal, 143, 

white, for paper, 143. 

white spirit, 143. 

Parisian, for wood, 143. 

for stained wood, 143. 

to restore spotted, 145. 

black, for zinc, 158. 
Varnishing paper, 103. 

directions for, 144. 
Vienna lime for polishing, 118. 
Violins, varnish for, 142. 
Voltaic batteries, 145. 

zincs for, 146. 

Walnut, black, to imitate, 156. 
Washing glass vessels, 58. 
Watch, care of, 146. 
Waterproof glass paper, 103. 
Waterproofing, methods used for, 147. 

for leather, 147. 

for canvas, 147. 

for sailcloth, 147. 

ordinary goods, 148. 
Water stains, to remove from engra- 
vings, 105, 
Wax for polishing floors, 151. 
Waxed paper, 105. 

Weather paper or barometer paper, 102. 
Welding copper, 39. 

iron, 72. 

steel, 136. 
Whiting for polishing, 114. 
White light, 85, 86, 87. 
Wliitewash, Treasury Department recipe 

for, 149, 
Whitewash, to "kill," 150. 
Window shades, sizing for, 127. 
Wollaston's white cement, 38. 
Wood's fusible metal, 15. 
Wood floors, 151. 

polishing, 151. 

staining, 154. 

Zinc, characters of, 158. 

to pulverize, 158. 

black varnish for, 158. 
Zincing iron, 74. 

iron by cold process, 75. 
Zincs for batteries, amalgamating, 146 



THE 



WOKKSHOP COMPANION, 



A COLLECTION OP 



USEFUL AND RELIABLE RECIPES, RULES, PROCESSES, 
METHODS, WRINKLES, AND PRACTICAL HINTS, 



FOB TEE HOUSEHOLD AND THE SHOP. 



- 4 - ' 

f»ART 11. { 



-♦- 



NEW YORK: 
THE INDUSTRIAL PUBLICATION COMPANY, 

1890. 
Copyright Secured, 1890. 



PREFACE. 



The extraordinary favor which has been accorded to the 
first part of The Workshop Companion— over twenty-five 
thousand copies having been sold without any special effort — 
has induced the author to prepare a second part, containing 
matter for which he has received numerous inquiries from 
readers of the first part. 

In doing this he has received aid from some of the best 
practical writers in the country, and feels assured that the 
matter now given will prove as thorough, as reliable, and as 
clearly expressed as that which preceded it. So that the work 
now forms a compact and convenient cyclopedia of informa- 
tion for everyday life. 

In collecting the information here given great care has 
been taken to offer nothing but what is thoroughly reliable. 
It is a fact well known to all intelligent technologists that a 
very large proportion of our best recipes are to be found in 
volumes published many years ago, whence they have been 
copied and recopied by different compilers. And it is also 
a fact, though one less generally known, that the sources of 
new information upon which these same compilers depend are 
just the ones in whieh the most recent knowledge is not to 
be found. As a general rule the authors or compilers of our 
modern collections of recipes have gone to the ^'Question and 
Answer" columns of the popular scientific and technical 
journals, ignorant of the fact that even when these questions 



IV PREFACE. 

are ho)ia fide, the answers are usually taken from some one 
of the old recipe-books. Indeed it often happens that even 
when the questions are the genuine inquirings of some seeker 
after special knowledge, and the answers are given by fellow- 
subscribers, the latter obtain their replies from commonplace 
and easily accessible books of recipes, and send them to the 
journal more for the sake of seeing themselves in print than 
from any other motive. Now and then we find a reply which 
is based upon the actual and intelligent experience of the 
correspondent, and such replies are beyond all value. But 
unfortunately such information is as rare as it is valuable. 

The difficulty of attaining simplicity and trustworthiness 
in a work of this kind is best illustrated by the statement 
of the compiler of one of the most extensive collections of 
recipes published in this country. He tells us that he set 
out with the intention of carefully sifting the vast accumula- 
tion at his command, and preparing a collection of popular 
and domestic recipes which should contain only those whose 
practical utility had been established, either by actual trial 
or by the guarantee of undoubted authorities. But he further 
tells us that as the work progressed this was found to be 
impracticable ; and those who are competent to examine his 
book critically will find that he has ended by publishing 
everything — good, bad, and indifferent, — the same recipe 
frequently appearing in a slightly different form half a dozen 
times! 

Several of the articles in this volume, although original 
with the editor, have appeared in the mechanical journals of 
the day, and have been thence copied into other publications, 
and generally without credit. This is notably the case with 



PREFACE. V 

the articles Cements, Soldering and Brazing, Weight of Pat- 
terns for Castings, Nails, Glue, and some others, which have 
been copied not only into contemporary journals but into 
numerous books of recipes and works on mechanics. These 
articles were written for the first volume of The Manvfacturer 
and Builder, of which the author of this volume was editor-in- 
cliief, and for The Technologist. As for The Workshop Com- 
panion itself, it has simply served as a mine from which 
editors and contributors might draw short and valuable 
articles when their pages were otherwise destitute of sound 
practical matter. In fact, one rather pretentious English 
periodical has published nearly the whole of it, piece by piece, 
and without the least credit! 

All this, however, is offered in a spirit of explanation, — not 
of petulant complaint. 

The size of the present work has been greatly reduced and 
its actiial intrinsic value proportionately increased, b}^ adher- 
ing strictly to the dictionary form. In works which are 
divided into so-called ^^Departments," the same information 
is given over and over again, in almost the same words, under 
the different heads. Thus in one of the $5 books now in the 
market we find the same recipe repeated at five, different 
places! The absurdity of having ^^Departments'' for Black- 
smiths, Gunsmiths, Machinists, Painters, Cabinetmakers, etc., 
is seen at once when we ask the compilers to point out the 
difference between the process for easehardening as used by 
blacksmiths and that employed by gunsmiths; or the varnish- 
ing of wood as applied by painters and by cabinetmakers. 
Tell us how to caseharden, and place the information under 
the letter C; or, if you choose, under the word "Iron," with 



VI PREFACE. 

a cross-reference from '^Caseharden," and then blacksmiths, 
cutlers, engineers, gunsmiths, machinists, amateurs, and every- 
one else can use it, and no space is wasted by giving the same 
information in half a dozen different places to as many differ- 
ent artisans. And by a liberal use of cross-references, as is 
done in this work, no difficulty need be met in finding any 
particular item of information. 

Before closing this preface there is one point concerning 
which we can not refrain from expressing a hope, — and that 
is in regard to the aid which amateurs and young people will 
derive from the volume. There are a hundred little things 
which may be done in every household to an advantage greater 
than that arising from any mere saving of money or actual 
convenience. Boys who occupy themselves in the evenings 
binding books and decorating glass will not be likely to long 
for the saloon and the billiard-table; and girls who have some 
pleasant occupation will not break their hearts because they 
are not taken every week to the theater or the concert. As 
a protection to young people there is nothing like giving them 
something to do that will interest them. But in order that 
they may be interested they must be able to do well whatever 
they undertake to do at all; and it is hoped that this book 
will on many occasions aid them In securing the necessarj'^ 
success. 

JOHN PHIN. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION 



Adamantine, or Boron Diamond. — This term has been 
applied to a crystalline form of boron prepared by heating 
boracic acid — or, what is still better, amorphous borun — with 
aluminium in a crucible. The name is not a very happy one, 
as it has been applied to several other articles, and the tenn 
** boron" would be much better. Crystallized boron, or ad- 
amantine, has not yet come into use in the arts; but from the 
fact that it is not very difficult to prepare, its peculiar prop- 
erties may lead to some useful applications. 

Wagner gives the following details in regard to its prepai*a- 
tion; and as they are not very complicated or delicate, it 
forms a fine field for amateur experiment : 100 parts of anhy- 
drous boracic acid are mixed with 60 parts of sodium in a 
small iron crucible heated to a red heat. To this mixture 40 or 
50 parts of common salt are added, and the crucible luted 
down. As soon as the reaction is finished, the mass — consist- 
ing of amorphous boron with boracic acid, borax, and common 
salt intermingled — is stirred into water acidified with hydro- 
chloric acid. The boron is filtered out, washed with a weak 
solution of hydrochloric acid, and placed upon a porous stone 
to dry, at the ordinary temperature. From this amorphous 
boron the crystalline boron, or adamantine, is prepared, as 
follows: — A small crucible is filled with amorphous boron, in 
the center of which a small bar of aluminium, weighing 4 to 6 
grammes, is placed. The crucible is submitted to a temper- 
ature sufficient to melt nickel for IJ to 2 hours. After cooling, 
the aluminium will be found covered with beautiful crystals 
of boron. The diamond boron is easily separated from thQ 



8 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

graphitoid. The crystals vary in color from a scarcely per- 
ceptible honey-yellow to deep garnet red: sometimes they are 
so deeply colored, probably by amorphous boron, that they 
appear black. In luster and refracting power they are nearly 
equal to the diamond. Their specific gravity is 2 63. They 
are extremely hard, — always sufficiently so to scratch corun- 
dum, or even the ruby, with facility; and some crystals are 
nearly as hard as the diamond itself. The hardest are ob- 
tained by repeatedly exposing aluminium to the action of boric 
anhydride at a temperature high enough to cause the anhy- 
dride to volatilize very quickly. 

From the character of boron it would seem eminently fitted 
for many purposes in the arts. For cuttiug-tools for very hard 
substances, for jewels for timepieces, etc., and for ornamental 
jewelry, it seems specially valuable. Its luster, hardness, and 
wide range of color, would seem to give it peculiar value for 
artificial gems. 

Aquarium. — The aquarium is now not only an interesting 
plaything and a handsome house ornament, but an important 
means of studying the habits of those plants and animals that 
live in water, and of watching the effect of the different species 
upon each other and upon the purity of the element in which 
they live.'^ It therefore deserves the careful attention of those 
who are interested in these subjects, and consequently de- 
mands more than a passing notice at our hands. 

The term aquarium was formerly applied to any tank or 
small pond used for growing aquatic plants ; and in this sense 
it is used by Loudon. But since the principles which regulate 
the balance of organic nature have been studied in connection 
with this subject, the name has been restricted to those tanks 
or vessels in which a self-supporting system of plants and 
animals has been placed. The principles which control the 
successful management of an aquarium are very beautiful, 
and not difficult to understand. 

Animals which live constantly under water breathe just as 
truly as do those animals that live on land, the difference in 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 9 

the methods of breathing of the two kinds being that while 
land animals take in the air directly into their breatliing 
apparatus, the water animals depend for their supply of oxygen 
upon the air that is dissolved in the water that they inhabit. 
The proportion of air wliich is held in solution by water is 
considerable, being greater in cold weather and under increased 
pressure. It is a curious fact that the oxygen dissolves in 
water more freely than does nitrogen; consequently the air 
which is supplied to fishes through the medium of water is 
always richer in oxygen than is the air that is breathed by 
land animals. But under any circumstances the oxygen con- 
tained in a few gallons of water is soon exhausted by a com- 
paratively small number of fish, and its place is occupied by 
carbonic acid, — a gas v/hich is entirely unfit for supporting 
life. The carbonic acid, into which the breathing of animals 
converts oxygen, may be removed, and its place supplied by 
the life-sustaining gas in two w^ays: (1) by mechanicpJly 
agitating the water and exposing it freely to the air, and (2) 
by the action of plants. The first method has been frequently 
employed in aquaria in public museums, — a pair of bellows or 
some such device being employed to force air in at the bottom 
of the tank, and in this way agitate it and ^^ aerate" it. This, 
however, is a crude and unscientific makeshift. The action 
of plants is far more efficient and more interesting. Every 
plant, when its leaves are exposed to light, absorbs the gas 
that is exhaled by animals (carbonic acid), decomposes it, 
appropriates the carbon to itself, and sets the oxygen free. 
The plant, in its action on the air, is thus directly antagonistic 
to the animal: it undoes what the animal does, and the two 
forms of life thus constitute a balance which maintains the 
air in its purity, and the waters of rivers, lakes, and oceans, 
in their life-giving qualities. This is the principle which is 
made use of in the management of a properly kept aquarium: 
plants are introduced in numbers and quantities sufacient to 
decompose the noxious gases given off by the animals, and 
the latter, in their turn, supply carbon to the plants. 



10 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

Tf no death, no decay, and no obnoxious growths ever oc- 
curred in the tanks, they would keep healthy and clear for an 
indefinite time, provided they were once properly balanced in 
the way we have described. But since minute animals will 
die and remain unseen, and plants will drop their dead leaves, 
death in some form or another is present all the time, and this 
tends to disturb the pleasant condition of things. Therefore, 
in addition to ordinary plants and fish, it is necessary to intro- 
duce certain scavengers who will devour any dead vegetable 
or animal matter, and thus put a stop to its evil influence. 
Snails and tadpoles are the great scavengers of. the aquarium, 
as indeed they are in nature, for a well-kept aquarium is 
merely a natural lake on a very small scale. The dissolved 
portion of dead plants and animals, as well as of their excreta, 
— whether the latter be solid faecal matter or the excretions 
which are undoubtedly given off by the external surfaces of 
all animals, fish as well as others — are taken up by the roots 
of the plants and rapidly removed from the water; and so 
nicely may all these interdependent actions be adjusted that 
an aquarium has been covered with a tightly closed glass 
plate and the plants and animals kept in good health for 
months. 

A careful study of these general laws will enable any one 
to manage an aquarium successfully; and there are few more 
beautiful objects in a room than a well-kept aquarium, with 
the water clear and the plants and animals in good health. 
But without a knowledge of these principles and a careful 
attention to them, the owner of an aquarium will be constantly 
groping in the dark and committing all sorts of blunders and 
mistakes. 

Aquaria are of two classes, — fresh water and marine, — ac- 
cording as the water is salt or fresh. Dwellers on the seashore, 
who have facilities for procuring stock and water, find the 
marine aquaria by far the most beautiful and interesting; and 
even far inland this form is a favorite with experts, as the 
water, plants, and animals are easily sent by rail; or, if de^ 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 11 

sirable, an artificial sea-water may be used, which will answer 
every purpose. 

When sea- water can not be procured for the marine aqua- 
rium, a substitute for it may be made as follows: Mix with 
970,000 gi'ains of rain- water 27,000 grains of chloride of sodium, 
3,000 of chloride of magnesium, 750 of chloride of potassium, 
29 of bromide of magnesium, 2,300 of sulphate of magnesia, 
1400 of sulphate of lime, 35 of carbonate of lime, and 5 of 
iodide of sodium. These, all being finely powdered and mixed 
first, are to be stirred into the water, through which a stream 
of air may be caused to pass from the bottom until the whole 
is dissolved. On no account is the water to be boiled, or even 
to be heated. Into this water, when clear, the rocks and sea- 
weed may be introduced. As soon as the latter are in a flour- 
ishing state the animals may follow. Care must be taken not 
to have too many of these, and to remove immediately any 
dead ones. The loss that takes place from evaporation is to 
be made up by adding clear rain-water. 

In such aquaria the beautiful anemones and other inhab- 
itants of the ocean may be kept in perfect health for years. 
We would, however, advise our readers to commence with the 
fresh- water aquarium, as being the most easily procured, the 
most readily stocked, and as requiring the simplest manage- 
ment; and the following directions are intended to apply 
chiefly to that form. 

Tanks, — Aquarium tanks are of all sizes and shapes, from 
the small fish-globe to the plate-glass tank, whose dimensions 
are measured by yards and whose contents are hundreds of 
gallons. In such tanks veritable whales have been kept in 
good health. On the other hand we have formed a microscopic 
aquarium out of a homeopathic phial, and in it have kept 
minute plants and animals for months in good condition. 

Probably the most pleasant and useful size for an aquarium 
is about thirty inches for the length and fifteen each for width 
and depth. Such a tank is easily manageable, while at the 
same time it admits of a fine display of plants and rockwork, 



12 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

and allows abundant room for the fish as well as nice resting- 
places for the amphibious animals. For ourselves, we confess 
that we have a liking for large tanks, — larger, even, than that 
just described. In such tanks we are able to watch the natural 
growth and development of most ordinary fish; the plants that 
are introduced need not be mere dwarfs; and the large body 
of water which they contain is not subject to such sudden and 
violent changes of temperature, unless exposed to the direct 
rays of the sun, — a condition which should never be allowed. 
But when the main tank is of a large size, it will in general be 
found necessary to have a few small ones for the more minute 
specimens, which would otherwise be difficult to find in the 
large tank. 

Avoid globes and all tanks with curved surfaces, as they give 
a distorted view of the animals, and when large are easily 
broken by any tap or increase of pressure from within. It is 
true that for scientific purposes bottles of all kinds, and even 
test-tubes, may be used; and on one occasion, where we re- 
quired a large number of vessels, we made good use of a lot of 
two-quart fruit-jars. But these are makeshifts, and not very 
good ones at that. Even hexagonal and octagonal vessels, 
although they are peculiar and somewhat pretty, we dislike, 
because the field of view (if we may so express it) is very 
limited. The fish, in moving about quickly, get behind another 
plane, and then the distortion is horrible. Now, what we want 
to secure is a clear and unobstructed view of all parts of the 
tank, so that the movements of the fish and the relations of the 
j)lants may be clearly and constantly visible when we wish 
them to be so. Nothing meets this requirement so thoroughly 
as a four-sided tank made of good plate-glass. 

It is probable that most fish and other animals would prefer 
opaque sides, as more closely imitating a natural pond; and 
acting on this idea, some makers have constructed their tanks 
with backs made of slate. The idea is a good one for some 
purposes, such as experiments in fish-breeding, but the plan 
is unsuited to the wants of the naturalist. If an opaque back 



THI2 WORitsaOP COMPANION. 13 

is thought to be advantageous, just hang a black cloth behind 
the glass: this can be removed when a view from that side is 
needed. 

Most tanks are made with cast-iron frames, into which the 
glass is cemented; and when the work is well done, so that 
the metal is nowhere exposed to the action of the water, this 
plan answers very well. The bottom, as well as the sides, 
should be of glass, however, — a plate of common window-glass, 
cemented to the cast-iron bottom, answering every purpose. 
A very excellent aquarium may be made with slate for the 
bottom ; and for the corners four cast-iron pillars, into which 
the glass is cemented. The slab of slate should be consider- 
ably larger than the space inclosed by the glass, so as to secure 
abundant strength; and as slate is as easily cut and planed as 
wood, the edge may be molded so as to have a very handsome 
finish. A slab of marble is sometimes used, but it is entirely 
unsuitable, unless when covered with glass, firmly cemented 
to it. The reason of this is that marble is soluble in water 
containing carbonic acid, and it forms a deposit on the sides 
of the tank, besides injuring the fish. 

Cements, — A great deal has been said about the cement 
proper to use for uniting the parts of the aquarium. Some 
authors tell us that any cement containing either lime or lead 
will be sure to injure the fish; but this must evidently depend 
very much upon the condition in which these materials are 
present in the cement. 

White lead and ordinary building lime would probably be 
bad ; but we have had tanks cemented with mixtures contain- 
ing litharge, and also others containing good hydraulic cement, 
and after long exposure to pure water and to water containing 
carbonic acid, neither the lead nor the lime seemed to be dis- 
solved to an extent that could be detected by the most delicate 
chemical tests, and neither did the plants or animals seem to 
suffer from any injurious effects. We therefore feel satisfied 
that the cements described in the article Cements in the former 
part of this work will fulfill every requirement. 



U THE W0ftKSH0t> COMt^ANION. 

Rock-work, — Rock-work is not only ornamental, but useful, 
as it furnishes hiding-places for the animals — all of which 
love seclusion at certain times. In selecting rocks, see that 
all those containing lime and other soluble matters are avoided. 
To determine this, pound some of the rock up and mix it with 
clear rain- water in a tumbler. After standing a day or two, 
evaporate a little of the water in a watch-glass, or even on a 
piece of thin window-glass, and if it leaves a considerable de- 
posit the rock is soluble and consequently bad. 

By keeping a sharp lookout we may often find rocks of a 
very picturesque form, and having little holes or pockets in 
their sides. These holes maybe enlarged and used for holding 
small plants, which will grow in them freely. 

Avoid all artificial nonsense like earthenware castles, sub- 
marine hermits, glass swans, cast-iron frogs, and the like. No 
person of taste would allow any such childish make-believes 
to have a place in an aquarium. So, too, avoid the incongruity 
of placing sea-shells and coral, however pretty and handsome, 
in a fresh- water aquarium. A sea-shell in a marine aquarium 
may be not only appropriate, but useful, as many animals use 
these deserted shells for burrows ; but in a fresh-water aqua- 
rium they are entirely out of place. And yet we have seen 
not only large sea-shells in a fresh-water tank, but of a whole 
herd of china (not Chinese) cattle placed as if gi'azing on the 
bottom! 

Water, — In procuring water for the aquarium, always select 
that which is as pure as possible. Absolutely pure water can 
not be had, even in the laboratory of the chemist, nor would 
it be desirable if it could be obtained. Distilled water is 
entirely unfit for starting an aquarium. The water of pure 
wells, lakes, and streams, is the most suitable. Some natural 
waters are so highly impregnated with lime, iron, or sulphur, 
that they are quite unsuited to our purpose, though we have 
seen both animals and plants thriving in such waters. It will 
be found, however, on examination, that these plants and 
animals have become acclimated, — as it were, reconciled tg 



THE work:shop companion. 15 

their conditions; and also that there are at work certain 
countervailing influences which we may find it difficult to 
imitate. Whenever we have attempted to use such water, — 
and we have frequently done so for experiment, — all plants 
and animals not born and brought up in it have suffered. 

Water impregnated with iron or sulphur is, in general, quite 
local in its occurrence. A certain pond or stream will be 
strongly tainted, and streams only a few yards distant will 
be quite pure. But in many districts of country, all the water 
contains such a large percentage of lime that it is unfit for 
aquarium purposes. In such cases recourse should be had to 
rain-water, caught at a distance from houses and well filtered. 
With such water we have succeeded admirably. 

After the aquarium has been filled and the plants have 
begun to grow nicely, it will be found that the water gradually 
diminishes on account of evaporation; and this is specially 
marked in those aquaria that are kept in warm rooms, wliero 
the air is dry. In such cases it will be found that it is tlie 
water alone that evaporates and is wasted; the salts and other 
impurities remain behind. If we now fill up the tank with 
water, such as we originally used, and which contains the 
same amount of saline matter that the water did, it is evident 
that we add to the original impurities; and by keeping up 
this practice, we will soon have more salts present than is 
endurable. This is particularly the case with marine aquaria: 
if we keep on adding sea- water to make up for the evaporation, 
it will soon attain a Dead-Sea degree of saltness. To avoid 
this we must simply imitate Nature, and make up for the loss 
by evaporation by adding rain-water, — which should, however, 
for aquarium purposes, always be well filtered. At proper 
intervals — three months or so — we should draw off a large 
proportion of the water in the tank, and fill up with newly 
collected water, — fresh or salt, as the case may require. 

It will sometimes be found that certain plants and animals 
whose habitat is boggy and impure water will not thrive well 
in any other. In such cases, the only way to secure success 



16 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

is to set up a separate tank, in which the natural conditions 
are imitated as closely as possible. 

Floor and Soil, — By ^' floor" is meant the surface of the 
saudj gravel, or earth, at the bottom of the tank. In the com- 
mon fish-globes, this is frequently merely the glass itself, 
though sometimes a handful of gravel is used to cover the 
bottom. But in a properly constructed aquarium, where a 
considerable variety of animals and plants are to be kept, 
great attention should be paid to the floor and to the soil be- 
neath it. Some animals are very fond of burrowing, and some 
of the plants require soil in which to gi'ow, and the needs of 
both should be provided for. 

The great difficulty will be found in regard to the soil. If 
merely placed on the bottom of the tank and covered with 
sand or small gravel, the crayfish, etc., will probably dig 
down to it, disturb it, and muddy the water. They like no 
better fun, but it spoils the aquarium. We have found that 
the best plan is to cover the bottom with rich soil, and then 
pave it over closely with thin, flat stones. The roots of the 
plants will find no difficulty in getting down, but the crayfish 
can not follow. As it is not well to have the soil packed too 
closely by the weight of the sand, gravel, and stones above, 
we generally mix it with small stones, and upon these the 
pavement rests. The pavement of thin stones is then covered 
to the depth of one or two inches with fine gravel or coarse 
sand. For the marine aquarium, well-washed sea-sand is the 
best: for the fresh-water aquarium, the best material will be 
found in the bed of some clear and rapid stream. This, when 
freed from mud by washing, will be sure to answer well. 
Where this can not be had, use good building-sand or gravel, 
well washed. The amount of washing required is something 
enormous : and unless this operation is thoroughly performed, 
the tank will never prove satisfactory. The sand should be 
so clean that when a handful of it is poured into a tall jar it 
will sink to the bottom in less than one minute and leave the 
water perfectly clear. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 17 

The beautiful white gravel used for roofing makes a very 
pleasing floor; but as it is brought from the sea it requires 
not only washing, but thorougli soaking for some time before 
it can be used in the fresh-water aquarium. 

Avoid limy and ferruginous sand ; that is to say, sand that 
is impregnated with lime or iron. Such sand may, in general, 
be known by its peculiar reddish color. 

The soil at the bottom of the tank may be any rich garden 
mouid. Some plants — such as hornwort, anacharis, etc. — grow 
freely while simply floating in the water : these need no soil. 
Others do better when securely anchored; but for them sand 
or gravel is sufficient. There are some, however, like valisne- 
ria, beccabunga, cress, etc., that do not thrive well unless 
rooted in soil. There are two ways of supplying their needs : 
One is to cover the entire bottom of the aquarium with soil, 
and plant the specimens in this, covering it over with sand 
or fine gravel, as previously described. Another way — and 
the one which we confess we like best — is to set out the plants 
in small pots, which are sunk to the very bottom of the tank 
and concealed by a heap of rock. The pots for this purpose 
should be shallow: common flower-pots cut down answer very 
well. This can almost always be done very readily by means 
of an old saw. A height of 2| inches is quite sufficient. A 
eocoanut-shell makes a good pot for such pui-poses. It do"s 
not decay readily ; it is easily cut with a saw ; and the bottom 
may be drilled full of fine holes, which is a great advantage. 
But the neatest and best pot may be made out of a piece of 
soft sandstone, cut with a chisel to the proper shape, and hol- 
lowed out for the reception of the soil. We have often won- 
dered that the dealers in aquarium stock do not manufacture 
pots specially for this purpose. They should be of a shape 
the reverse of the common flower-pots, — that is, widest at the 



STOCKING THE AQUARIUM. 

The great mistake made by most beginners in stocking an 
aquarium is in getting too much animal life in proportion to 



18 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

the cubic capacity of the tank. It is not often that we see 
too many plants, but we often see too many fishes. Fish are 
so easily obtained, they look so pretty, and form such interest- 
ing pets, that few beginners can refrain from keeping all that 
they can crowd in. Since the aquarium should be a means of 
instruction as well as pleasure, we would advise our readers 
to restrict themselves to one of each kind, unless in such 
cases as the sticklebacks, where pairs are necessary to enable 
us to watch their nest-building, hatching, and caring for their 
young. 

Having obtained a tank and fitted it up with rock- work, and 
a nice clean floor, the first thing to be done is to set out those 
plants that are to take root in the subsoil. Then fill the tank 
gently and slowly with water, so as not to disturb the sand or 
gravel. This may be done by pouring the water on a large 
bung or piece of wood, which is allowed to float and rise as 
the tank fills, and is removed when sufficient water has been 
introduced. Floating plants may now be introduced, and also 
a few mollusks and tadpoles, and the whole allowed to stand 
for a few days exposed to the light, until the water has been 
brought into proper condition to receive the fishes and crusta- 
ceans. The latter may then be introduced. In all this, seek 
to obtain as great variety as possible, — unless, indeed,' you 
desire to study carefully some one species or genus of plants 
or animals, and then, of course, you will be guided by the 
special purpose you may have in view. The inhabitants of the 
aquarium may be rudely classed as follows : Plants, mollusks, 
insects, crustaceans, reptiles, and fishes. To each of these 
divisions we shall devote a few words, though from want 
of space we are unable to give anything like a description 
of the different species. To do this would require a large 
volume. 

Plants. — The plants most suitable for the aquarium are 
those which grow with their leaves entirely submerged. Large 
plants like calla, arrowhead, etc., which grow with their leaves 
in the air, do not act upon the water so effectually as those 



THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 19 

email plants whose leaves obtain all their carbon from the 
water itself. Indeed, the plants which are most effective in 
aerating the water of the aquarium are probably those minute 
confervas which are so apt to cover the rook and glass with a 
green coating. 

Among the plants whicli are most useful are tlie following: 
ValUsneria spiralisy whose slender tape-like leaves sometimes 
reach a length of six feet in some of our riversi It readily 
accommodates itself to the aquarium, and is not only an ex- 
cellent aerater, but it harbors hosts of animalcules on which 
the fish feed greedily. Water millfoil is another excellent 
plant for our purpose. It may be found in the spring growing 
in dense masses in deep water. The *^seed," a rather peculiar 
form of bud, may often be found floating in the water in very 
early spring. This bud, which looks like a round green seed, 
about half an inch in diameter, will, if placed in the aquarium, 
soon begin to grow and send out a long stem densely clothed 
with narrow leaves. It forms no roots, but grows floating in 
the water, and forms a pleasant shade for the animals in the 
tank. The anacharis alsiiiastrunij sometimes called water- 
thyme, is another excellent plant for this purpose. It is the 
plant which has caused so much trouble in England by choking 
up the rivers and canals. Nitella is also a good plant, and is 
frequently cultivated for the purpose of showing the circula- 
tion or rather cyclosis of the sap under the microscope, though 
a good young leaf of vallisneria is perhaps as good as any for 
this purpose. The duckweeds, frogbits, and starworts, are 
also great favorites. 

The fact is, however, that the young collector can hardly go 
wrong. Any of the smaller plants found growing naturally 
under the water of our ponds and streams answer well for the 
aquarium; and it is a good lesson in botany to gather them, 
watch their growth, and learn their names. 

Molluslcs. — These are not only an interesting but an almost 
indispensably useful portion of the inhabitants of every well 
regulated aquarium. They serve to keep down the confervsB, 



^0 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

to remove decaying vegetable matter; and when Well supplied 
with these they multiply very rapidly, and their eggs and 
young form excellent food fot* the fishes. The variety that 
may be found is Very large, and eveiy stagnant pond swarms 
With them. We would advise our readers to select a few of 
all the kinds that can be found, work out their names by 
studying books on the subject, and carefully watch their 
habits. Some of them have a curious habit of swimming on 
their backs on the surface of the water. They adhere to the 
smooth surface of the glass by ^'suction," creep along it with 
a curious motion, and literally *^mow" off the confervas with 
their tongues. All this can be easily seen through the glass 
by means of a good lens. The eggs, also, are most interesting 
objects. They are frequently deposited on the glass, and can 
then be studied very readily by means of a microscope. After 
a short time the young snail can be seen distinctly in the egg, 
and its motions easily observed. For tanks of fair size the 
fresh-water mussel is an interesting and beautiful inhabitant. 
Its pearl-white mantle and gorgeously colored shell are feat- 
ures which even the most unenthusiastic must admire. 

Bisects. — The larvae of insects — and in a few cases the 
mature animals themselves — are interesting. The bottoms 
of most of our small ponds are alive with different species, 
some of which are very curious in their habits. It unfortu- 
nately happens, however, that the fish have a strong liking for 
them; and those for which the fish have not a strong liking 
have a strong liking for the fish, so that when we exclude both 
those that are easily destroyed and those that are destructive, 
the scope for choice is rather narrow. The water boatman 
{Notonecta glaucus) is a common inhabitant of ponds and 
puddles, and an interesting subject for the aquarium, and so 
is the whirligig ((^7/n7i?/s natator). The larvae of the dragon- 
fly and of the dytiscus are curious but destructive; and one 
of the most singular objects is the larvae of the Corydalus. It 
is known also as the ^^helgramite,'^ and is largely used for bait 
by fishermen. The motion of its external gills, when watched 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 21 

under liie microscope, is very curious. The large water-beetle 
{Hydrous i)ic€us) is said by some to be harmless, but our expe- 
rience does not bear this out. 

But of all the insect inhabitants of the pond or tank, the 
eaddis-worm is the most curious and wonderful. This curious 
insect builds a little house for itself, and carries it about on 
its back, — enlarging its dwelling as its body increases in bulk. 
These dwellings, or ^' cases" as they are called, are formed of 
sticks, stones, and other material, and are designed to afford 
protection to the animal while in its defenseless state. But 
it often happens that some trout or other voracious enemy 
comes along and swallows not only the poor cad, but his 
'* castle" as well. As a still further protection, therefore, the 
caddis-worm endeavors to escape observation by forming his 
house as nearly as possible of the same color as his surround- 
ings. 

Crustaceans, — Crayfish and shrimp should by all means have 
a place ip the aquarium. They are to be found in most streams 
by turning over the stones, and they are easily caught. Of the 
fresh-water crayfish we have one species in this country which 
seems to be spread over a pretty wide range, and is well known 
to anglers as a killing bait for bass and some other fish. Its 
scientific name is Astacus Bartonii. It breeds freely, and the 
young are curious little creatures. The old females may fre- 
quently be found with a number of their young adhering to 
their bodies under the tail ; and when such a specimen can be 
captured it is well worth while to give her a separate tank, 
and try to rear the young. 

In a>ddition to the crayfish, the grammarus is well worthy of 
a place; and so is the hrachijms. The grammarus, or fresh- 
water shrimp, is a favorite food of the trout, which always 
grows to a larger size, and has a superior flavor where they 
abound. 

Insects, crustaceans, and reptiles are all apt to make efforts 
to escape during the night; and therefore the aquarium con- 
taining them should be carefully covered every evening, so ^s 



22 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

to prevent this. The best cover is a light wooden frame, over 
which fine wire gauze is stretched. 

Bep tiles. — No aquarium can be considered complete without 
a frog or a tadpole. Watching a tadpole develop into a frog 
is a favorite amusement with young naturalists. ^ First of all 
they gradually increase in size, and when this process has 
been carried to a certain extent the hind legs develop, and we 
have a curious compound — half fish, half reptile. After a time 
the fore legs make their appearance, the tail drops off, and the 
animal changes entirely its habits and necessities. It no longer 
lives in the water, for it is now an air-breathing creature; 
and whereas it formerly subsisted on vegetables and dead 
animal matter, it now feeds chiefly upon living insects, which 
it captures with wonderful dexterity. It is a singular fact, 
however, that these changes are greatly influenced by the con- 
dition in which the tadpole is placed. If confined in a dark 
place the change never comes at all, and it remains a tadpole 
all its life. 

Besides the frog there are several other reptiles which are 
worthy of a place in the tank. The most interesting of these 
are the newts. There are several species, all quite pretty, and 
adding much to the variety of the stock. Some persons, it is 
true, can not endure the sight of these creatures ; and where 
such idiosyncracies exist, the newts must be omitted. It must 
be borne in mind that where frogs and newts are kept some 
provision must be made for allowing them to spend a large 
portion of their time out of the water, otherwise they will 
certainly be drowned. 

Fisk. — In procuring fish for the aquarium, one of the great- 
est sources of pleasure will be the catching of them. The 
catching of small fish, under ordinary circumstances, is an 
insipid and to some a very distasteful occupation ; but when 
it is done for purposes of study, or with a view to the stocking 
of an aquarium, a new element of pleasure is infused into the 
pursuit. Our streams and ponds abound with little fish that 
are easily caught, and make verjr interesting little pets, Tb© 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 23 

simplest and best way to capture them is with a small net 
made of ^* mosquito netting." The net is simply a bag stretched 
on a hoop about 18 inches in diameter, which in turn is fastened 
to a handle six or eight feet long. The bag should be at least 
twice as deep as long; and if the netting is new and white, 
it should be stained a dirty mud-color by means of logwood 
or coffee, as the glare of the white net would scare the fish. 
The fish may be driven into such a net, or it may be used 
like a landing-net. No great dexterity is required, and it is 
a matter of considerable interest to examine the ^^haul" and 
sort out the different species. The angler should in this case 
be satisfied with two or three of a kind, and all the others 
should be returned to the water. Remember that many of 
these fish are the young of larger ones, and when full grown 
afford good sport to the angler. And even if they are not the 
young of the larger kinds, they form the natural prey of the 
food-fishes, and should be carefully protected from wanton 
destruction. 

The varieties that may be obtained are quite numerous. 
There are the minnows, the dace, the darters, and others. 
Very small perch and sunfish form very handsome pets in the 
aquarium, but they must be quite small or they will prove 
mischievous. Pickerel and bass can only be admitted while 
very young, and in association with fish much larger than 
themselves. They should be liberally supplied with very small 
fish; or if allowed to become hungry they will torment and 
even kill fish ten times their size. 

Gold and silver fish and the different varieties of carps all 
form interesting additions to the stock. These may be pro- 
cured from the dealers for a very small sum. A very small 
eel is a curious and amusing little creature, and should by all 
means be allowed a place, althougli Edwards denies them 
admission on the ground that they kill the mollusks. 

But of all the fish that are procurable under ordinary cir- 
cumstances the stickleback is the most interesting; and the 
following aQcoufit of it§ habits and mode of caring for its 



24 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

young can hardly fail to tempt those whose tastes lead them 
in this direction to repeat these observations. Mr. West gives 
the following account of his experience with a pair of stickle- 
backs : — 

^Mn the spring of 1860 I procured some male and female 
sticklebacks, a single pair of which I placed in a fresh-water 
aquarium by themselves; and the remainder I deposited in a 
large salt-water tank, which was already pretty well stocked. 
The males of these quietly took possession of spots eligible 
for their nests and commenced building. They w^ere, however, 
so much disturbed, and their work was so often destroyed by 
the crabs and other inmates of the aquarium that my exper- 
iment of breeding in my salt-water tank was for the season a 
failure. Not so in the fresh-water one. The male promptly 
selected a home for his expected family, taking all the labor 
upon himself. Here, again, poetry has been substituted for 
fact. Instead of * gently alluring his mate to their new-made 
home,^ and being *a model husband,' truth compels me to say 
that he was the veriest of tyrants, and fiercely attacked his 
cara sposa if she dared to approach tlie nest during its con- 
struction. When his labor was completed, hov/ever, he as 
harshly attempted to drive her into it. During the progress 
of the building her meekness, submission, and affection were 
beyond all praise. She generally lay quietly in a corner of the 
aquarium, and when he chanced to come near her would im- 
mediately rise up perpendicularly, quivering her fins, rubbing 
herself against his side, and making every possible demonstra^ 
tion of tenderness. All the material for the nest was conveyed . 
by the male in his niouth, It consisted of various conf ervsB, 
stems of nitella, etc, which were placed in layers, with a 
mouthful of sand ov fine gravel occasionally dropped upon 
them to keep each laj^er in its place ; and he frequently slowly 
yubbed himself over the whole mass, apparently covering it 
with a cement exuded from his body. When completed it was 
a compact nest, with a round passage through it of from one 
fourth to three eighths of an ipcji ip diameter. Having givei^ 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 25 

it the finishing touch, he sought the female to drive her in. 
As I was at this moment watching the operation I had the 
rare opportunity of observing the actual depositing of the 
spawn, etc., of which no description has yet met my eye. The 
madam now acted with proverbial female coquetry and way- 
wardness, and led her imperious spouse a chase a dozen or 
twenty times around the aquarium, avoiding the nest as ob- 
stinately as she had before eagerly sought it. At length she 
relented, and entered it at the orifice nearest the front of the 
aquarium. Her caudal fin alone remained visible, and I noticed 
that it had an incessant quivering motion. The depositing of 
the spawn lasted about forty seconds, and it was while the 
male excitedly hovered near that he almost literally 'turned 
as white as a sheet.' As she glided out at the further orifice 
he entered and performed his functions, also passing through 
the nest. Afterwards he closed the orifice and commenced 
an assiduity of attention to the nest that was most surprising. 
Night and day he kept guard over it for some eighteen days, — 
now strengthening its walls by additional stems of nitella, now 
thrusting his nose into the orifice to ascertain that the seal 
had not been violated ; and every few minutes hovering over 
it, with his body inclined at an angle of forty-five degrees, 
fanning it with his pectoral fins, aided by a lateral motion of 
his tail. At length the young appeared, and the vigilance of 
M. gasterosteiis was redoubled. On the day that I first saw 
the 3^oung ones, which I am pretty sure was the first day of 
their appearance, the dielighiedi ;pater familias would not permit 
any of them to leave the mouth of the nest, the orifice to which 
he had torn open for them. On the second day their ' area of 
freedom ' was slightly extended ; but if they went beyond the 
limits he would take them in his mouth, as a cat does her 
kittens, and put them back into the nest. After a few days, 
however, he no longer restrained them of their liberty. Left 
to themselves, they soon spread themselves over the tank. 
1 estimated their number at more than two Jiundred. From 
the time his parental duties ceased begaji tlie decadeace of 



26 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

the male's brilliant coloring. As for the female, seemingly 
conscious that her functions were entirely at an end, she lay at 
a remote part of the tank, concealed by a root of vallisneria, 
never venturing near her husband and children. In fact, when 
the young fry began to extend their travels, and were seem- 
ingly able to take care of themselves, I removed both the 
parents for fear of accidents^ to wit, possible infanticide, — a 
precaution I recommend in all similar cases. With such pos- 
itive evidence that the male stickleback alone ^attends to the 
little ones,' I could only smile when Mr. Hancock, a naturalist 
of some eminence, asserted, in an interesting and otherwise 
very correct description of this process of nidification which 
appeared in The Zoologist^ that 4t required all the mother^ s 
unremitting exertions, for several days after the fry were 
hatched, to keep them within bounds, so as to preserve them 
from danger.' Even Dr. Lankester falls into a similar error, 
publishing with his endorsement a communication from a cor- 
respondent who describes 'the mother fish' as 'continuing her 
attendance at the nest as long as any of the young fry were 
left.' As the correspondent was a woman, the mistake was a 
natural one." 

Feeding the fish, — Fish in a well-arranged tank require very 
little food beyond that which is naturally produced in the 
water in which they live. Certain minute crustaceans (cyclops, 
water-fleas, etc.) breed with marvelous rapidity; and as they 
feed upon the almost invisible animalculee, which in turn con- 
vert decaying vegetables into their food, a certain round or 
cycle of organic life is thus kept up. The eggs of snails also 
furnish a favorite food; and if a few ^'wigglers" can be pro- 
cured and thrown into the tank the fish will rarely allow them 
to develop into mosquitoes. The plants also will furnish a 
certain amount of food, and a worm or two occasionally may 
be given to them by way of "entree." The dealers furnish a 
kind of wafer that answers well for most fishes; and we have 
found that goldfish, carp, minnows, and vegetable feeders in 
general are very foad of boiled rice, They eat it greedily, 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 27 

and thrive upon it. The rice is boiled in water until quite 
soft, then drained nearly dry, and, of course, given when quite 
cold. The boiled rice-grains resemble grubs in appearance, 
and the fish make for them at once. One great advantage of 
boiled riee is that it has very little tendency to corrupt the 
water. 

Aurum Musivum, or Mosaicum. — This compound early 
attracted the attention of the alchemists, who no doubt sup- 
posed, when they saw it come from their crucibles, that they 
had taken a long stride toward the discovery of the philos- 
opher's stone, and that one step more would enable them to 
convert tin into veritable gold. So they called this strange 
gold-like compound aurum musivum, or mosaic gold. It is in 
reality a disulphide of tin, and is made as follows : — 

1. Melt 12 oz. of tin and add to it 3 oz. of mercury ; triturate 
this amalgam with 7 oz. of sulphur and 3 oz. or sal ammoniac. 
Put the powder into a mattrass,* bedded rather deep in sand, 
and keep it for several hours in a gentle heat, which is after- 
wards to be raised and continued for several hours longer. 
If the heat has been moderate, and not continued too long, 
the golden-colored, scaly, porous mass, called aurum musivum, 
will be found at the bottom of the vessel ; but if it has been 
too strong, the aurum m-isivum fuses to a black mass, of a 
striated texture. 

2. Melt together, in a crucible over a clear fire, equal parts 
of sulphur and the white oxide of tin. Keep them constantly 
stirred with the stem of an earthenware pipe or glass rod till 
they assume the appearance of a yellow flaky powder. In 
stirring the mixture avoid the use of an iron rod, as it would 
destroy the compound. 

* A mattrass is a glass flask with a long neck. Any thin bottle of green 
glass will answer if it is bedded well in sand, so that it may not be exposed 
to sudden changes of temperature. We have made very fine mosaic gold 
in two common clay crucibles placed mouth to mouth and luted together. 
(See article Lute.) In the upper crucible we bored a small hole for the 
escape of vapors, and the whole was placed inside a larger crucible, the 
space betw^^n being filled witfe saTj4. No metallio vegs^l wjU W^^^r* 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

Mosaic gold is used as a color or bronze foi coating plaster- 
of-paris images, and also as a gold varnish on toys, and like- 
wise for the sparkles or spangles in that which is called gold 
sealing-wax. Of late years, however, the manufacture of 
bronze-powders has been so much improved that they have 
driven the mosaic gold entirely out of the market. In the 
laboratory it is still used for coating the rubbers of electrical 
machines, as it produces powerful excitations, requires no 
grease, and does not stick to the glass. 

Authorship. — Authorship consists of two distinct depart- 
ments: first, the possession of good ideas; and second, the 
getting of them into a form fit for publication. In regard to 
the first, we can offer no help; but we w^ould earnestly caution 
our readers against attempting to become authors until they 
have something really worth offering to the public. Young 
people, especially those who are inclined to write poetry, are 
most frequently sinners in this respect, though we must say 
that in too many cases it is more the fault of others than of 
themselves that they try to get into print. Impelled by a mere 
desire to put their thoughts on paper, and for their own grat- 
ification, they produce a piece of rhyme and show it to their 
friends, w^ho all go into ecstasies over it and urge them to 
publish It is then submitted to the preacher and the teacher 
of the village, who both pronounce it finer than anything that 
Moore or Byron ever wrote, and forthwith it is sent to the 
editor of some paper. If the paper is published in a small 
place and has a small circulation, the editor vrill probably be 
glad to get it, not for its own sake, but because the friends of 
the poet will no doubt purchase a few copies, and he may 
even secure two, or three new subscribers. The poor author 
is thus victimized and made to believe that he or she is a 
rising genius; and when other editors, having greater knowl- 
edge and free from personal bias, refuse the doggerel, which 
is sure to be thereafter copiously produced, it is claimed at 
once that such rejection arises from prejudice and all sorts of 
bad reasons. Now let it be borne in mind that it would prob> 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 29 

ably be difficult to select three worse judges than the preacher, 
the teacher, and the editor, of a country village. In tlie first 
place, they are rarely able to form a sound judgment of any- 
thing out of their own special line. This is shown by the 
readiness with which their names are secured as endorsements 
to every claptrap that comes along. And in the second place, 
they are apt to be swayed by a desire to favor a friend and 
neiglibor. Of course there may be marked exceptions, but 
in a pretty wide experience we have generally found it as 
stated. 

Assuming, however, tliat you have something to say which 
the public is interested in hearing, the following hints will 
enable you to get your manuscript into presentable shape: — 

1. Select a proper-sized paper, not very large nor very small, 
and never write on waste scraps. Ordinary commercial note- 
paper, w^hicli maybe had cheaply in packages, is a very suitable 
size. Use single leaflets. Do not make your manuscript up 
into book-form, with the pages from the beginning to the end 
of the article attached to each other. Above all, carefully 
number each page consecutively. 

2. Use a good black ink; pale ink or fancy colored inks are 
an abomination. The only exception to this is the use of dark 
violet ink. Ink of this kind dries rapidly, consequently it 
needs no blotter, and is liked much by some authoru. There 
can be no objection to it. 

3. Write only on one side of the paper. 

4. Write a plain, bold hand, giving more attention to dis- 
tinctness and legibility than to beauty. Remember that the 
manuscript will come back to you soiled and crumpled and 
fit only for the waste basket, while the printed copy may 
endure for ages, and an error caused by illegible manuscript 
may annoy yourself and friends years after your ''beautiful" 
manuscript has been consumed by fire. 

5. Leave ample margin on one side of each sheet for correc- 
tions. 

6. See that the paper is wide ruled. 



30 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

7. Use no abbreviations which are not to appear in print. 

8. Punctuate the manuscript as it should be printed. 

9. For italics J underscore with one line ; for small capitals, 
with two lines ; for CAPITALS, with three lines. 

10. Never interline without the caret to show its place. 

11. Take special pains with every letter in proper names. 

12. Review every word, to be sure that none is illegible. 

13. Put directions to the printer at the head of the first page. 

14. Do not write long articles, or long sentences. Write as 
you would a telegram, where each word costs a dime ; or as 
an advertisement which costs a dollar a line. 

15. Do not ask an editor to return your manuscript. Keep 
a copy. With a hundred letters a day to read, he has some- 
thing to do besides hunting up last yearns manuscripts, — re- 
ceived, rejected, and buried or burned long ago. 

16. Never write a private letter to the editor on the printer's 
copy, but always on a separate sheet. 

Finally, do not say, *^I write in a hurry; please correct all 
mistakes." You have ten times the opportunity to do this 
that the editor has. His time is worth from fifty cents to ten 
dollars an hour, and he will be likely to correct your errors 
by fire, and then they will never trouble any one any more. 
You must do your own work if you want it done. Some poor 
printer has to set up the type for your article. Every cent 
you save by using pale ink, poor paper, and writing carelessly 
because you are in a hurry, or writing finely, or erosswise, to 
save two cents postage, will cost the printer in toil, delay, and 
eyesight, at least fifty times as much money as you will save, 
besides causing him to commit blunders for you to scold 
about. 

The above hints are specially intended for those who write 
for the periodicals of different kinds. Similar rules apply to 
the preparation of manuscript for books. See that the man- 
uscript is perfect before it is placed in the hands of the com- 
positor. Time is charged on all corrections, alterations, and 
additions made in the proof, which are not in the original 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 31 

copy. A very little change takes up more time than is gen- 
erally supposed. The insertion or removal of a word or two 
may require the overrunning of every line in a long paragraph ; 
the adding or taking out of a sentence, the overrunning of 
every page set up which follows it. All this can be avoided 
by having the manuscript carefully prepared. The time-work 
charged on a badly prepared manuscript will often exceed the 
cost of having it fairly copied by a clerk. 

Leave a wide margin, on which can be written directions for 
the compositor and minor corrections. Marginal corrections 
are preferable to interlineations. When they are too long to 
go in the margin write them on a separate piece of paper, 
marking it with the page, and indicating on the page the place 
where it is to be inserted. Write on the margin the amount 
of space, if any, desired between paragraphs or divisions, for 
the insertion of additional authorities, etc. 

Attend to your own punctuation, marking each point dis- 
tinctly. Eemember the old craft-pun, that *^ compositors are 
setters, not pointers," — their duty is to *^ follow copy." The 
whole force of a paragraph may be destroyed by careless punc- 
tuation. 

Authors should always make the beginning of a new para- 
graph conspicuous to the compositor by indenting the first line 
of it far enough to distinguish it from the preceding line in 
case the latter should be quite full. 

Make a final careful revision of the manuscript before hand- 
ing it in. It is said that Newton wrote his chronology over 
fifteen times before he was satisfied with it; and Gibbon wrote 
out his memoir nine times before sending it to the press. No 
beginners can expect better success or less labor than such 
learned men. 

Estimatmg Amount of Matter in Manuscript.— A tolerably 
close estimate of the words contained in even bad manuscript 
may be made by counting the lines of say twelve of its varying 
pages, then getting an average per line of the words in several 
lines taken from each page, and multiplying the number of 



32 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

the formal* by tliat of the latter. Next add the average allow- 
ance for chapter-lines, sub-heads, and other break-lines, count- 
ing them as full lines. Reduce the break-lines to full lines, 
adding them to the whole, and you have the contents of twelve 
pages. Divide by twelve to find the contents of a single 
(average) page. 

For example, a work of 400 pages in manuscript is submitted. 
Twelve average pages, taken at intervals, give an average of 
30 lines to a folio. Three lines taken at various places from 
■each of these twelve pages indicate an average of eleven words 
to a line. This will give about 330 words to a page, exclusive 
■of breaks, chapter and other lines, for which an allowance is 
made of four lines, or 44 words, for each page of manuscript, 
which, added to 330, makes 374. Multiply the 374 words per 
page by the 400 pages in the manuscript, and you have a result 
of 149,600 words in all. 

To know how many pages of printed matter this will make, 
it is now necessary to have the size of type and page to be 
used. An exact printed page, containing the one and repre- 
senting the other, is always a good guide in completing the 
calculation, which is done by dividing the number of words 
contained in the manuscript by that of the printed page. This 
will give the desired cast-off for the work in printed pages. 

Thus, the estimate of the manuscript gives 149,600 words; 
that of the printed page of the size required — set up in leaded 
long primer, we will say for example — gives 480 words ; con- 
sequently 149,600 divided by 480 gives 312 pages, or 20 sheets, 
if printed in octavo. 

When extra or more than single * heading" of matter is re- 
quired, count the extra leads (six-to-pica -being the size most 
used in book-composition) in the following proportions : three 
for a nonpareil line ; four for brevier and bourgeois ; five for 
long primer and small pica; six for pica; and so on, increas- 
ing or diminishing in the necessary ratio for larger or lesser 
.sizes. 

For works under 144 pages, the cast-off of which does not 



THE WORKSnOP COMPANION. 33 

reach a Bumber of folios divisible by 4, there should be added 
the number that will make it so. Thus, 110 will be counted 
as 112 ; 134 as 136 ; and so on. A sufficient allowance of pages, 
added in the same way, should be made in cast-offs for larger 
works, adopting 8 or 12 as the even dividing number. This 
rule applies more particularly to works where the copy is very 
irregular or much crowded with abbreviations and closely 
written notes, alterations, interlines, etc. 

Babbitt's Anti-attrition Metal. — This has long been a 
favorite alloy for forming bearings for the journals of shafts, 
etc. The large proportion of tin which it contains renders it 
essentially anti-friction, while the copper and antimony render 
it hard enough for light work. When the bearings have to 
carry a great weight, however, the Babbitt metal is too soft, 
and yields under the pressure. To keep it in place and give 
it strength enough, the inventor uses east-iron boxes having 
one or more recesses or cups for the reception of the soft 
metal, which is not only east in place, but so managed that it 
shall be literally brazed or soldered to the more rigid cast-iron. 
The following are the directions given by the inventor for pre- 
paring and using this metal: — 

*^In the first place, I melt four pounds of copper; and when 
melted, add by degrees twelve pounds best quality Banca tin ; 
then add eight pounds regulus of antimony; and then twelve 
pounds more of tin, while the composition is in a melted 
state. 

'* After the copper is melted, and four or five pounds of tin 
have been added, the heat should be lowered to a dull red heat, 
in order to prevent oxidation ; then add the remainder of the 
metal, as above named. 

*'In melting the composition, it is better to keep a small 
quantity of powdered charcoal in the pot, on the surface of the 
metal. 

**1 make the above composition in the first place, which I 
call liardening; then, as I want to use for lining- work, I take 
one pound of the hardening and melt with two pounds Banca 



34 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

tin, which produces the lining-metal I now use, which I con- 
sider the best 1 have ever used. So that the proportions foi 
lining-metal is four pounds copper, eight regulus of antimony, 
and ninety-six pounds tin. 

''The object I have in first preparing the hardening, as above 
mentioned, is economy ; for when the whole is melted together, 
I find there is a great waste of metal, as the hardening is melted 
at a much less degree of heat than the copper and antimony 
separately. 

"I find, in my practice, that in melting the lining-metal, or 
tin for tinning the boxes, there is some oxidation on the sur- 
face of the metal, which should be skimmed off. This oxide 
I save, and, when I get a quantity, put it into a black-lead 
crucible, add about one tenth in bulk of pounded charcoal, 
expose it to a smart red heat, which brings it back again to 
metal fit for use. 

"The box or article to be lined, having been cast with a 
recess for soft metal, is to be nicely fitted to a former, which 
is made the same shape as the bearing, except being a hair 
larger than the bearing. 

"Drill a hole in the box for the reception of the metal, say 
half or three quarters of an inch, according to the size of the 
box. The box having been thus prepared, coat over the part 
not to be tinned with a clay wash ; wet the part to be tinned 
with alcohol, and sprinkle on sal ammoniac, ground as fine as 
common table salt. Heat the box till a fume arises from the 
sal ammoniac, and immerse it in a kettle of Banca tin melted, 
care being taken not to heat it so that it oxidizes. 

"After the box is tinned, should it have a colored appear- 
ance, sprinkle a little sal ammoniac, which will make it of a 
bright silver color, and cool it gradually in water ; then take 
the former, to which the box has been fitted, and coat it over 
with a thin clay wash, and warm it so that it will be jjerfectly 
dry ; heat the box until the tin begins to melt ; lay it on the 
former and pour in the metal, which should not be so hot as 
to oxidize^ giving the metal a head, so that as it shrinks up it 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 35 

will fill up. After it is sufficiently cool take it off the former 
and scour the box, so that there may be no sand or dirt on it, 
which would injure the bearing. 

**A shorter method may be adopted when the work is light 
enougli to handle quickly, viz., when the box is prepared for 
tinning it may be immersed in the lining-metal instead of the 
tin, bruslied lightly in order to remove the sal ammoniac from 
the surface, placed immediately on the former, and lined with 
the same heat." 

Balloon. — As a means of aerial navigation, in the proper 
sense of that term, the balloon is now generally acknowledged 
to be useless or worse than useless ; but as an instrument for 
observation, whether in the operations of war or the purposes 
of meteorology, it is of great value. And as small captive 
balloons are easily constructed, at small expense, they will no 
doubt come into more general use in the future. A balloon 
eight feet in diameter, filled with gas, will carry up quite a 
number of efficient instruments for recording temperature, 
pressure, electrical condition, etc. 

The art of ballooning depends upon the difference between 
the weights of the same bulk of air and that of some of the 
lighter gases. Thus pure hydrogen, weighed under similar 
conditions, is about 16 times lighter than common air; but 
when prepared on the large scale, and containing water, air, 
and other impurities, it is only from 7 to 11 times lighter than 
the atmosphere. A cubic foot of atmospheric air at the level 
of the sea weighs .07609 lb.; a similar globe of hydrogen (reck- 
oning it only as 6 times lighter than common air), will there- 
fore have an ascensional force of .063 lb., or rather more than 
an ounce. Now, the weight of the body of air which a balloon 
displaces must exceed the gross weight of the balloon, its con- 
tents, and all its appendages, in order for the latter to ascend 
in the atmosphere. The difference of the two weights ex- 
presses the ascensional force. In round numbers the buoyancy 
of a balloon may be reckoned as equal to 1 oz. for every cubic 
foot of hydrogen it contains, less the weight of the case and 



8G THE WORKSHOP COMPANION, 

appendages. The carbuvetted hydrogen supplied by the ga§* 
works is much heavier than hydrogen gas, and consequently 
tnuch less buoyant, for which due allowance must be made. 
That which possesses the least illuminating power is the light* 
est, and consequently best adapted for aerostation. 

The aerostatic power of balloons is proportional to their 
dimensions in the ratio of their contents, and this is as the 
ratio of the cubes of their diameters. Thus it will be found 
that a balloon of 60 feet diameter filled with common hydrogen 
will ascend with a weight of nearly 7,000 lbs., besides the gas- 
case, whilst one of only II foot in diameter will barely float, 
owing to the less proportionate volume of gas to the weight 
of the case containing it. 

The following table shows the relations between the diam- 
eters, surfaces, and capacities of spheres:— 



Diameters. 


Surfaces. 


Cubical contents. 


1 


3-141 


•523 


2 


12-567 


4-188 


3 


28-274 


14137 


4 


50-265 


33-51 


5 


78-54 


65-45 


10 


314-159 


523-6 


15 


706-9 


1767-1 


20 


1256-6 


4189- 


25 


1963-5 


8181- 


30 


2827- 


14137- 


40 


5026- 


33510- 



The fabric of which the cases of air-balloons are made is 
strong thin silk, covered with an elastic varnish of drying oil 
or india-rubber, or, what is better, a solution of india-rubber 
in either chloroform or bisulphide of carbon ; the netting is of 
strong light silk or flaxen cord, and the car of basket-work. 
Fire-balloons, on the small scale, are generally made of tissue- 
paper, and are inflated with the fumes of burning alcohol, by 
means of a sponge dipped in that liquid and suspended just 
within the mouth of the apparatus. 

Owing to the increasing rarity of the atmosphere as we 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 37 

ascend from the earth^s surface, balloon-cases are made very 
much larger than is required to contain the necessary quantity 
of gas, to allow for its expansion as it rises into a rarer me- 
dium. A cubical foot of gas measured at the level of the sea 
occupies a space of two feet at an elevation of 3i miles. 

Soap-buhhle Balloons. — M. Delon, of Paris, produces miniature 
balloons by means of ordinary gas conducted through a caout- 
chouc tube and clay pipe to glycerine soap solution. A small 
disk of thin paper, with fine wire from its center to a little 
paper car with aeronaut figures, is connected to the bubble 
when it begins to swell, the disk being attached by capillarity 
to the part where the drop forms. The detached bubble rises 
with its car. 

Bast. — Bast, or bass, is the inner bark of various species of 
the linden. It is used in Europe (chiefly in Russia) largely for 
manufacturing mats, which form a most excellent protective 
covering for plants, etc., securing them against frost and cold. 
It is also used quite extensively in horticulture for tying up 
plants and for binding grafts, etc. Its soft ribbon-like char- 
acter renders it peculiarly valuable for this purpose, — far 
superior to twine, osiers, etc. 

A very excellent article of bast may be obtained from the 
basswood of this country. The outer bark having been stripped 
off and soaked in water, the inner bark separates in long rib- 
bons, which are then dried and stored away for use. 

Bedbugs. — Bedbugs are not only disgusting and annoying, 
but absolutely dangerous, as their bites and poison have been 
known to cause severe fevers in persons of sensitive organiza- 
tion. Some persons seem to be perfectly proof against them ; 
others seem to attract these vermin so strongly that if there 
should be a single bug in the house in which they sleep they 
are sure to be bitten. And while it is true that under ordinary 
conditions the tidy and industrious housewife finds no difficulty 
in keeping her rooms and furniture free from them, yet it is 
equally true that there are occasions on which the most expert 
will have their powers and ingenuity taxed to the utmost* 



oo THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

Such occasions arise wlien from long immunity the house- 
keeper feels secure and allows her vigilance to relax; then a 
few prolific specimens are introduced by some accident, and 
before the family is aware of the trouble certain rooms and 
even the whole house will be overrun with them. Under such 
circumstances thorough and vigorous work will be needed; 
and to secure efficiency it is necessary in this as in every other 
case in which we have to deal with vermin that we should be 
thoroughly informed as to their habits and life-history. 

English authorities claim that the bedbug is a native of 
America, and that it was not known in London prior to the 
great fire which destroyed that city. It is further said that 
the bug was introduced in the wood used to construct the new 
dwellings. Linnaeus also was of the opinion that the bedbug 
is a native of America. In Mather^s Bible that passage in tlie 
Psalms which, in our version, reads ^^Thou shalt not be afraid 
of the terror by night" is translated *'Thou shalt not nede to 
be afraid of any bugs by night." The word **bug" here means 
bugbear. 

It has been generally supposed that bedbugs are partial to 
old houses, but Westwood tells us that ^'it is certain that they 
swarm in the American timber employed in the construction 
of new houses; and it is said that they feed upon the sap of 
that wood." We ourselves have frequently found them in the 
woods in the bark of pine timber, far from any human hab- 
itation. 

The eggs of the bedbug are white, of an oval form, slightly 
narrowed at one end, and terminated by a cap which breaks 
off when the young escape. These eggs are most beautiful 
objects under the microscope. The young are very small, 
white, and transparent, so that the circulation of the blood is 
easily seen in the insect at this stage. 

There seems to be quite a difference of opinion as to the 
length of time that they can exis^ without food. Dufour says 
they live but a short time ; De Geer tells us that he has kept 
full-grown specimens for more than a year in a sealed-up 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 39 

bottle without food. We never could succeed iu keeping them 
as long as that; but since the}- can subsist on various vege- 
table matters no one need have any liope of starving them out. 
The only way to get rid of them when they have got a foot- 
hold, and to keep rid of them, is to destroy every specimen 
that can be found. Fortunately this is not a very difficult 
task. 

There are several very efficient methods of destroying bed- 
bugs, and we shall describe tliem iu the order of their 
efficiency. 

Fumigation tvUh Sulphur Fu7)ies. — This is decidedly the most 
effective method, though it involves more trouble than any 
other, and is more liable to produce injury. To fumigate a 
house or room, all the valuable furniture and everything that 
can be injured by the acid fumes must be removed, and all 
crevices must be stopped up so that the gas can not escape 
until it has done iis work. Then a good fire is made in a small 
portable stove, which sliould bo placed on bricks or on a large 
board well covered with earth. When the fire is at its best, — 
that is to say, when the fuel has been thoroughly ignited, — lay 
on a few pieces of roll brimstone and immediately leave the 
room, closing the door tightly. In a few hours the acid vapors 
will have penetrated every hole and crevice; and all animal 
life, from the rat or mouse to the disease-germ, will have been 
destroyed. Rats and mice, however, generally run away; but 
insects remain and are killed. As soon as the fumes have 
done their work the room should be thoroughly ventilated and 
cleaned. 

The objections to the use of sulphur fumes in a house are 
that they destroy coiors, cause metals to rust, and are generally 
injurious. All metals that can not be removed should be cov- 
ered with paraffine-paper, and the keyholes should likewise be 
covered, and if the bugs have got into the locks remove them. 
For these obvious reasons this method should be used only as 
a means of last resort. Fortunately we have other agents 
nearly as good. 



40 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

Corrosive Suhlimate. — Corrosive sublimate, or biehlori«le of 
mercury, is probably the most effective poison that we have. 
For ordinary purposes it is used in solution in water; but as 
water does not readily moisten dusty or oily spots, a solution 
in alcohol is far superior. Dissolve an ounce of sublimate in * 
a quart of alcohol, and brush this over cracks, joints, and any 
other inaccessible retreat of the bugs. The liquid will pen- 
etrate into joints and crevices at once, and, which is of more 
importance, the alcohol will carry the poison into the eggs of 
these vermin and thus destroy the young. One or two thorough 
applications will destroy every vestige of these pests. 

Remember that this solution is a rank poison, and it should 
be kept out of the way of children and animals. 

Various other solutions have been recommended, but they 
are all so far inferior to the bichloride that it would be a waste 
of space to name them. The alcoholic solution of the sub- 
limate does not injure anything except varnishes and metals. 
Therefore it should not be applied to them. For varnished 
surfaces use a strong decoction of tobacco in water. 

The following is the common formula for compounding 
** bug-poison": — 

Corrosive sublimate (in powder) and hydrochloric acid, of 
each 1 oz.; hot water, | pint; agitate them together until tlie 
first is completely dissolved. It is applied with a paint-brush, 
observing to rub it well into the cracks and joints. This is the 
common '^ bug- wash" of the shops. It is a deadly poison. 

Gray, in his ^^ Supplement to the Pharmacopoeia/' gives the 
following recipes: — 

1. Alcohol, 1 pint; camphor, 2 oz.; oil of turpentine, 4 oz.; 
corrosive sublimate, 1 oz. Mix. 

2. Olive oil, 8 oz.; oil of turpentine and beeswax, of each 
2 oz.; sal ammoniac, arsenic, and corrosive sublimate, of each 
1 oz. Melt the wax and oils together, and then stir in the 
other ingredients, in powder, stirring until the mixture is cold. 

Insect Powder. — The least offensive and injurious applica- 
tion is the ordinary insect powder. When thoroughly applied 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 41 

it is very effective, but it does not seem to destroy the young 
insects in the eggs; and therefore to make thorougli work wo 
must use a series of applications, so as to destroy the young 
broods as fast as they appear. 

Having once got rid of them every care should be taken to 
prevent their reappearance. The most effective way of doing 
this is to remove all old and loose paper from the walls, and 
see that all crevices are filled up w^ith good hard putty, which 
should be lime for walls and hard putty for woodwork. The 
woodwork and also the walls should be well painted witli good 
oil paint, and special pains should be taken to see that the 
cracks in the floor are well stopped. Then, with vigilance and 
plenty of good soap and water the liousekeeper may bid defi- 
ance to '^the terror that walketh by night." 

Birch-bark (Oil of). — It has long been a well-known fact 
that Russia leather owes its durability, as well as its peculiar 
odor, to the oil of birch-bark, with which it is dressed. The 
whole process seems to be pretty w-ell understood, and has 
been for a long time, — the great difficulty in the w^ay being 
the labor required in the preparation of the oil. It is only 
from the thin paper-like bark of the birch that the oil can bo 
procured; the wood and the coarser bark of the birch yield 
only a stinking oil, totally unlike the oil of the external bark. 
Gray, in his ''Operative Chemist," describes the process of 
preparing this oil, as follows: — 

The Russians obtain this oil by filling a large earthen pot 
with the thin, whitish, paper-like external bark of the birch 
tree, carefully separated from the coarse bark, closing the 
mouth of this pot with a wooden bung pierced with several 
holes; and then turning it over and luting it with clay to the 
mouth of another of the same size. A hole being dug in the 
ground, the empty pot is buried in it and a fire is lighted round 
and over the pot containing the bark, which is continued for 
some hours, according to the size of the pot. When the ap- 
paratus is cooled and unluted, the lower pot contains tbo brown 



42 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

oil, mixed with pyroligneous tar, and swimming on an acid 
liquid. 

In some places iron pots are used for this purpose, and the 
bark is hindered from falling into the lower pot by a plate of 
iron pierced with holes. Gray says that one hundred pounds 
of bark yield about sixty pounds of oil. 

The waste of fuel in this process might be avoided by placing 
the pots in the side chamber of a reverberatory furnace, filling 
the chamber a little above the joining of the pots with saud, 
and then proceeding to distillation. 

This oil is used in Russia for currying leather, to v/hich it 
gives a peculiar odor and a power of resisting moisture far 
beyond any other dressing. Its use seems to have arisen from 
observing that the thin paper-like leaves of birch-bark re- 
mained after the coarser part of the bark and the timber of 
fallen trees had rotted. The oil appears to owe this quality 
to a resin, which, by this mode of distilling per descensum, is 
allowed to escape in a great measure from the action of the 
fire and drop into the lower pot. 

Other barks — as those of the oak, willow, poplar, alder, as 
also poplar-buds, rue, and savine — have been tried, but the 
produce from them was only a stinking oil. Cork yielded an 
oil approaching, in some degree, that of birch-bark. 

The genuine Russian birch-oil has been imported into this 
country, and has given very good results in the dressing of 
American leather. 

Birdlime. — This preparation is used extensively by pro- 
fessional birdcatchers, and aifords a very simple and effectual 
method of capturing small birds without injuring them. Twigs 
or small rods are coated with birdlime, and placed either near 
some food or over a cage contain'.ng another bird. In either 
ease the wild bird is sure to hop on to the limed twig, and will 
be held until the birdeateher secures him. 

Good birdlime is greenish colored ; very gluey, stringy, and 
tenacious; when air-dried it is bxittle and pulverizable, but 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 43 

capable of gradually assuming its previous viscosity when 
moistened. 

To prepare it the middle bark of the holly (gathered in June 
or July) is boiled from six to eight hours in water, or until it 
becomes quite soft and tender. The water is then drained off, 
and it is placed in a heap in a pit under ground (commonly on 
layers of fern) and covered with stones. Here it is left to 
ferment for two or three weeks, and watered, if necessary, 
until it assumes a mucilaginous state. It is next pounded in 
a mortar until reduced to a uniform mass, which is then well 
kneaded with the hands in running w^ater until all the refuse 
matter is worked out. It is, lastly, placed in an earthen 
vessel and covered with a little water, in which state it may 
be preserved from season to season. In about a week it is fit 
for use. 

BrunsTvick Black. — This is a black varnish which is a 
favorite with microscopists and amateurs. Being cheap it is 
also used to blacken ironwork, grates, etc. The formula for 
tlie best article is as follows: — 

In an iron pot, over a slow fire, boil 45 lbs. of real asphaltum 
(not that made from gas-tar) for six hours; and during tlie 
same time boil in another iron pot 6 gallons of oil vvhich has 
been previously boiled. During the boiling of the 6 gallons 
introduce 6 lbs. of litharge gradually, and boil until it feels 
stringy between the fingers; then ladle or pour it into the pot 
containing the boiling asphaltum. Let the mixture boil until 
upon trial it will roll into hard pills ; then let it cool, and mix 
it with 25 gallons of turpentine, or until it is of a proper con- 
sistence. 

Bladders. — To the amateur chemist bladders often form an 
efficient substitute for a much more expensive apparatus. 
They form the cheapest and most convenient gasholders that 
can be obtained; and we have often melted platinum, burned 
small pieces of iron, and even produced a good lime-liglit by 
means of two bladders and some very simple home-made 
apparatus. Strips of bladder, after being moistened, adhere 



44 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

firmly to glass and metal in drying, and often form the L( !<t 
Joints and lutes in putting pieces of apparatus togetlier. Ar.<l 
in certain physical experiments on liquids, pieces of bladder 
are as convenient an article as can be used. 

Bladders are prepared by being first freed from all fat v.vA 
flesh. This is best done by blowing them up and removing 
all superfluous matter with a sharp knife, the utmost care 
being taken to avoid cutting the bladder itself, since the least 
puncture renders the bladder w^orthless. It is always well to 
expand the bladder a little first, as if we begin to cut while 
the bladder is thick and unexpanded the danger of cutting the 
bladder itself is greatly increased. The bladder should then 
be soaked in a weak solution of common washing soda ami 
well w^ashed, after which it is blown up as tightly as possible, 
and the neck firmly tied. It is now to be rolled and worked 
with the hands on a smooth board or table, and as fast as it 
gets larger so that the air does not keep it tight, it must bo 
blown up again. The use of a bladder-tube and stop-cock 
greatly facilitates this operation, as the bladder can then be 
frequently filled without the trouble of tying and untying the 
neck. The blowing up of a large bladder is a somewiiat 
tedious operation, but it is astonishing to see the extent to 
which it may be increased in size. After being blown as large 
as possible, the bladder should be filled with water and emptied 
two or three times, so as to wash out the inside. This tends 
greatly to prevent putrefaction. After being thoroughly washed 
the bladder should be soaked in a weak solution of chloride 
of lime, or, better still, Javelle water. It should then be thor- 
oughly emptied, blown up tight, and tied. If now well dried, 
it will keep in good condition for any length of time. The 
great difficulty with bladders when used for such purposes is 
that they can not be used in a dry state, and they soon become 
putrid if exposed to alternate wetting and drying. This diffi- 
culty may be avoided in a great measure by soaking the blad- 
ders in a solution of salicylic acid in glycerine. This not only 
preserves them but keeps them soft and pliable, so that they 



THE WOl^KSHOl^ COMPANION. 45 

may be used quite readily for experiments on gases. By care- 
ful selection and thorough work in preparing and expanding 
tlie membrane a good-sized ox-bladder may be converted into 
a very serviceable gasholder. 

Cadmium. — This metal would be of great use in the arts if 
it were not so rare. In many of its properties it stands be- 
tween zinc and tin. The color and metallic luster of cadmium 
are similar to those of tin: it is ductile and malleable, but 
more readily acted upon by atmospheric oxygen and moisture 
than tin. 

But the prominent feature of cadmium is its low fusing 
point, and the fact that it forms with lead, tin, and bismuth, 
alloys which have a lower melting point than any other metal 
except mercury. (See Fusible Metals.) It is said that a beau- 
tiful white metal, very hard, and capable of taking a brilliant 
polish, is obtained by melting together about seventy parts of 
copper, twenty of nickel, five and a half of zinc, and four and 
a half of cadmium. It is, therefore, a kind of German silver, 
in which part of the zinc is replaced by cadmium. This alloy 
has been recently made in Paris for the manufacture of spoons 
and forks, which resemble articles of silver. 

The great facility with which cadmium volatilizes has been 
the serious drawback to the formation of its alloys and their 
study. 

Cadmium also furnishes a beautiful yellow paint — cadmium 
yellow, — which is a sulphuret of cadmium. 

Cameos. — Success in the cutting of cameos will depend 
largely upon the artistic abilities of the carver. In skillful 
hands the results are exceedingly delicate and beautiful. The 
following is the method of working: — 

Take the common helmet or the red helmet shell (those 
shells whose inner surface is pink or dark colored are most 
suitable), cut them into squares with a lapidary's mill, round 
off the corners, and shape them into an oval on a w^et grind- 
stone. Fix the enamel side on a short stick with jeweler's 
cement, grind off the brittle surface, sketch the subject with 



46 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

a black-lead pencil, cut the subject with engraVer^s tools, 
namely, a chisel-tool to clear the bare places ; a lozenge-shape 
for forming the subject, and a scraper made of a three-angled 
file, ground off taper to the point, for cleaning the enamel sur- 
face round the subject, and also for forming the lineaments 
and other delicate parts. The color on the cheeks and hair is 
produced by leaving the layer of colored shell on those places. 
The stick must be grasped in the left hand, and held firmly 
against a steady bench, and with the tool resting in the hollow 
of the right hand, dig away the shell. A convenient length 
for the tools is three inches and a half; they must be kept in 
good condition to work with accuracy. The cameos are pol- 
ished with a cedar stick, or a piece of cork dipped in oil of 
vitriol and putty-powder, and cleaned with soap and water. 
Mother-of-pearl is carved in the same way. 

Casehardening. — There are few subjects which have afford- 
ed a more profitable field to the traveling recipe-monger than 
iron and steel, especially as relates to welding and casehard- 
ening. The latter is a very old process, but one which still 
has important uses, notwithstanding the great improvements 
in tlie manufacture of iron and steel. 

Casehardening is simply the rapid conversion of the surface 
of a piece of iron into steel, and this is usually followed by 
sudden hardening in cohi water, which makes the casehardened 
portion as hard as the hardest steel, and besides gives it a 
beautifully mottled appearance. The special advantage pos- 
sessed by an article which has been casehardened over one 
made entirely of steel lies in the fact that the interior or core 
remains soft and tough, so that the article is not liable to be 
broken by a fall or a blow. Owing to the irregularity of the 
steel if ying process the surface also presents a mottled appear- 
ance, which confers upon it a beauty that can not be obtained 
in any other way. 

The following processes have been tested by experience, 
and may be fully relied upon: — 

1. Where it is desired that the articles should be hardened 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 47 

to a considerable depth: Char a quantity of bones, just enough 
(and no more) to enable you to powder them with a hammer. 
Lay a layer of this bone-dust over the bottom of an iron tray 
or box, which may be easily made by bending heavy sheet-iron 
into form. Lay the articles to be hardened on the bone-dust, 
taking care that they do not touch each other. Cover with 
bone-dust, and fill up the tray with spent dust, charcoal, or 
sand. Expose to a bright cherry-red heat for half an hour or 
an hour, and then turn the entire contents of the tray into a 
vessel of cold water. We have seen beautiful results obtained 
by this process when carried out in a common kitchen-stove. 

Even raw bone-dust, such as is sold for farming purposes, 
may be used with good'results. 

Bone-black or ivory-black may also be used; and, as they 
may be purchased ready prepared, we may avoid the disagree- 
able process of roasting the raw material. 

2. Moxon's recipe is as follows: — 

Cow^s horn or hoof is baked or thoroughly dried and pul- 
verized. To this is added an equal quantity of bay salt, and 
the whole is made into a paste with stale chamber-lye or 
white-wine vinegar. The iron is covered with this mixture, 
and bedded in it, in loam, or inclosed in an iron box. In this 
form it is laid on the hearth of the forge to dry and harden ; 
then it is put into the fire, and blown till the lump has a blood- 
red heat (no higher). It is hardened by immersion in water 
or oil, the latter being preferred for delicate articles. 

3. Take a quantity of old boots, burn these until they be- 
come charred, beat off the black and charred portion witli a 
hammer until sufficient powdered carbon is obtained. Then 
place this powder with the articles to be operated upon into a 
sheet-iron box or a piece of wrought-iron gas-pipe sufficiently 
large, taking care that the articles are well covered and in the 
center of the mass ; lute the ends of the pipe or the top of the 
box with clay, and place the whole into a fire made of coke, 
keeping them there for an hour or more, taking care that the 



48 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

heat shall be equal (between dark-red and red); now plimg6 
the contents into water. 

Any animal matter will answer; andj on the large scale, 
charcoal might be prepared from almost any refuse of the 
kind; and, being well powdered, might be made an article of 
commerce. ^'Charcoal for casehardening" could hardly fail 
to find a good market. 

It would seem that in mechanical processes, as in medicines, 
there are those who believe that the more disgusting an article 
is the more effective it is. It is only on this ground that such 
filthy ingredients as stale urine, nightsoil, etc., can have been 
recommended. We have tried these abominable recipes, and 
they are not as ef&cient as the more cleanly ones. We there- 
fore omit them. 

4. As this roasting of bones, leather, etc., gives rise to most 
abominable odors, the editor of this work some years ago de- 
vised the following preparation, which was found to give very 
excellent results: — 

Prepare a strong solution of prussiate of potassa; boil in it 
as much coarsely powdered wood-charcoal as can be mixed 
with it. Drain off the superfluous liquid, spread the charcoal 
on a board, and dry by exposure to the air. When dry, roast- 
it at a temperature just below that of ignition, the object 
being to drive off all moisture, but not to decompose the prus- 
siate, which, at a red heat, is converted into cyanide of potas- 
sium and some other compounds. The charcoal thus prepared, 
and afterwards reduced to a moderately fine powder, will be 
found to answer quite as well as animal-charcoal ; and no 
difficulty will be found in casehardening to a depth which will^ 
allow of a good deal of polishing before tlie' soft metal under- 
iieath is reached. 

In using the materials above described, the articles to be 
casehardened are always inclosed in an iron box or case while 
exposed to the fire. Pieces of iron tubing make capital recep- 
tacles to hold the work, the ends being stopped with loose 



THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 49 

iron plugs, wMch are to be cemented in air-tight with a mix- 
ture of fire-clay and sand, and the whole securely bound with 
wire. The entire outside of the box or tube should then be 
coated with loam and allowed to dry, after which it may be 
exposed to a fire for a period varying from half an hour to 
three hours, according to the size of the box and the design 
of the operator. 

In packing the articles in the box see that the entire space 
is packed solidly with the powdered charcoal ; and, above all, 
see that none of the pieces touch each other. The air must be 
thoroughly excluded, or mischief will ensue. 

Tlie articles are usually hardened by allowing them to drop 
directly from the box or tube into a tub of water, in which 
they are vigorously stirred until cold. For some peculiar pur- 
poses the articles are dropped into oil. They 4o not become 
so hard, but they are tougher. 

When mere superficial hardening is required, heat the article 
to be hardened to a bright red ; sprinkle it liberally with pow- 
dered prussiate of potash. The salt will fuse, and if the piece 
of iron is small and gets cooled, heat it again sm^ plunge into 
cold water. 

We have seen recipes in which various salts (sal ammoniac, 
nitre, and even bichromate of potassa!) are recommended to 
be mixed with the prussiate of potash. It is needless to say 
that such additions do harm instead of good, and can only 
serve to render the recipe more complicated and mysterious. 
The fact is, however, that casehardening is one of those opera- 
tions which are usually surrounded by much mystery by the 
less intelligent class of mechanics; but to those w^ho have 
given the subject a careful practical study the process is as 
well understood as any other operation connected with iron 
and steel. Even where we would least expect it, this nonsen- 
sical complication creeps out. Thus, in a ^^Techno-chemieal 
Receipt-book" recently issued we find the following as the 
only recipe given in this department : — 



50 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

^^New Casehardening Compound. — This compound is very 
efficacious for casehardening iron. It consists of 16 parts of 
lampblack, 18 of sal soda, 4 of muriate of soda, and 1 of black 
oxide of manganese." 

This recipe is almost worthless. The lampblack is the only 
efficient agent present, and it is not half as good as charred 
leather or bone-black. 

Should the articles require to be blue, such as the barrels 
or chambers of pistols, repolish them on an emery-wheel; put 
them into a sand-bath or powdered charcoal, and heat until 
the blue color is attained, taking them out the instant that 
this change takes place. It should be borne in mind that 
articles treated in this way are comparatively soft. 

Owing to the extreme hardness of their surface, articles that 
have been casehardened are capable of taking a very high 
polish. The ordinary processes of polishing and buffing are 
sufficient to produce beautiful results. 

Articles which have been casehardeneci may be annealed 
and made so soft as to be readily worked with files and turning 
tools, and they may be again hardened so that those parts 
from which the steely surface has not been removed will be as 
durable as ever. Of this principle advantage has been taken 
to cause the casehardening to terminate at any desired point. 
The article is left with a band or projection at the place which 
is desired to be soft; the work is allowed to cool without being 
immersed in water ; the band or projection is now removed by 
turning or filing, and the work when hardened in the open fire 
is only affected so far as the original cemented surface remains. 
This ingenious method was introduced by Mr. Roberts, of Man- 
chester, who considers the success of the casehardening pro- 
cess to depend on the gentle application of the heat. Mr. 
Roberts thinks that by proper management, so as not to over- 
heat the work, the cementation may be made to penetrate 
three-eighths of an inch in four or five hours. ^^In the general 
way, the conversion of the iron into steel by casehardening is 
quite superficial, and does not exceed the one-sixteenth of an 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 51 

inch. If made to extend to one-quarter or three-eighths of an 
inch in depth, to say the least it would be generally uselesa^ 
as the object i« to obtain durability of surface with strength 
of interior, and this would disproportionately encroach on the 
strong iron within. The steel obtained in this adventitious 
manner is not equal in strength to that converted and ham- 
mered in the Usual way; and if sent in so deeply, the provision 
for wear would far exceed that which Is reqmted.^^-HoltmappftL 

By combining a hard steely surface with a soft interior, the 
article is enabled to resist sharp blows as well as wear. If left 
soft, it is easily worn down by friction ; if hardened through- 
out, it will break like glass by a mere fall. 

Casehardening Powders,— ^qvqyqX powders have been placed 
on market for the purpose of casehardening. The principles 
to be adopted in compounding them will be obvious from what 
we have just written. The following are a few of the best:— 

1. Prussiate of potash, dried, finely powdered, and mixed 
with any simple coloring-matter to disguise its appearance. 

2. Prussiate of potash, 3 parts; sal ammoniac, 1 part. Pow- 
der finely, and mix thoroughly. A little very finely powdere<l 
animal-charcoal is sometimes added. 

3. Sal ammoniac and bone-dust, of each 2 parts; prussiate 
of potash, 1 part. Grind to fine powder, and mix thoroughly. 

4. The powder suggested by the author of this work, namelv, 
animal charcoal, soaked in a solution of prussiate of potash 
and finely powdered, we believe to be the most convenient 
and efficient. It is cheap, easily made, and, if put up in 
packets of different sizes, would find a ready though limited 
sale. 

Castings and Patterns.- There are few problems more 
mteresting to the pattern-maker than the determination of the 
weight of the castings which his patterns will produce. Some 
years ago the author investigated this subject very carefully, 
both theoretically and experimentally, and published the re- 
sults in the first volume of The Manufacturer and Builder, of 
which he was editor. 



52 THE W0RKSH0I> COMPANION, 

The relative weight of patterns and Hastings (?an, of eoursQj 
always be determined most accurately by measuring the pat* 
tern and multiplying the number of cubic inches which it con- 
tains by the weight of a cubic inch of the metal of which the 
casting is to be made. The weight of a cubic inch of the 
various metals in common use may be found in any table of 
specific gravities. This plan should always be adopted in the 
case of very large castings, because it eliminates several im- 
portant sources of error ; and when proper allowance is made 
for shrinkage it gives results which are very near the truth. 
But many patterns, especially those of small size, are so 
irregular in shape that accurate measurement is tedious if not 
difficult. In such cases a tolerable approximation may be 
obtained by weighing the pattern, and comparing this weight 
with the weight of the same bulk of the material of which the 
casting is to be made. If the specific gravity of all samples 
of the same kind of wood were alike, and if the casting were 
always the same size as the pattern and of uniform specific 
gravity, this method would be perfectly accurate. But even 
with every drawback it gives tolerable approximations. 
" In the following table we give a series of multipliers which 
express the relative weight of paiterns of different materials 
when cast in different metals. To find how much a casting 
from a given pattern will weigh proceed as, follows: — 

Weigh the pattern. Then in the first column find the mate- 
rial of which the pattern is made, and opposite this and under 
the material of which the casting is to be made will be found 
a number which when multiplied by the weight of the pattern 
will give the weight of the casting. 

Example : A pattern made of St. Domingo mahogany weighs 
8 lbs. 6 oz. How much will a casting of iron weigh? 

"Weight of pattern, 8 lbs. 6 oz. 

Multiplier for cast-iron set opposite } ^^ 

St. Domingo mahogany, ^ . . . . v 

Weight of easting, 83 lbs. 12 oz. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 



53 



TABLE OF MULTIPLIERS FOR FINDING THE WEIGHT OF CASTINGS 




FROM 


PATTERNS. 




Material of Pattern- 


Specific 


Cast 


Gun 


Yellow 








Gravity. 


Iron- 


MetaL 


Brass. 


Zinc. 


Copper. 


Mahogany, . . . 


•854 


8 


10 


9-8 


8 


10-2 


St. Domingo do. . 


•700 


10 


12 


11-5 


9-5 


12^2 


Maple, 


•700 


10 


12-4 


12 


9-8 


12^5 


Beech, 


•624 


11 


13-8 


13-4 


11 


14 


Cedar, 


•596 


115 


14^5 


14- 


114 


14^7 


Yellow Pine, . . . 


•541 


13 


16 


15^5 


12 6 


16-2 


White Pine, . . . 


•473 


14-2 


17-8 


17 


14-5 


18 



The causes of error are : shrinkage in the eastings ; weight 
of nails and screws in the pattern; variation in specific grav- 
ity of material of which pattern is made ; variation of specific 
gravity of metal of which casting is made. Shrinkage is too 
large an element to be left out of consideration, and we have 
diminished our multipliers by a proper proportion to allow 
for it. In the construction of patterns an allowance is usually 
made for this contraction, either by calculation or by the use 
of a shrinkage rule as it is called, — that is, a rule on which 
12i inches is called a foot, and divided accordingly. But in 
making allowance for shrinkage in casting, pattern-makers 
understand that different shapes will shrink differently. The 
standard table of allowance for shrinkage in use in the best 
shops of the country is as follows: — 



Green Sand Castings, . . 






^cr J.UVJ 


Dry 


a 


. tV 


u 




Brass Castings, 




. tV 


a 




Copper ^^ 




. A 


a 




Bismuth '' 




. A 


li 




Tin '' 




. i 


n 




Zinc *' 




. A 


ii 




Lead " 




. A 


ii 





When cores are to be used a suitable allowance must be 
jjiade for them, but this is in general most easily an4 accu- 



54 THE WORK'^HOP COMPANION. 

rately done by measuring the cubic contents of the hole left 
by the core and calculating the proper weight to be deducted. 

A singular oversight occurs in one of our architects' *' Pocket- 
books" in the treatment of this problem. The reader is directed 
to use a series of multipliers which are arranged for the metal 
of which the casting is to be made, utterly irrespective of the 
material of which the pattern is made! 

Chamois. — The chamois of commerce is a variety of soft 
pliable leather obtained by tanning the skin of the animal of 
the same name belonging to the antelope species. The leather 
is used extensively for burnishing metals, jewelry, glass, 
precious stones, silverware, fine woods, etc., and also in some 
cases for linings, and as a filling in or pack for surgical instru- 
ments. A great deal of the leather sold in the shops is nothing 
but finely tanned sheepskin; but this is not nearly so soft or 
strong as the genuine article, although it is held at the extreme 
prices asked for the imported and real chamois-leather. 

The animal known as the chamois chiefly inhabits the Alps 
and the Pyrenees Mountains in Europe, being found in flocks 
of from half a dozen up to a hundred in number. It is of an 
exceedingly wild nature, and has never been domesticated. 

Chamois may be cleaned in a weak solution of soda in warm 
water. Rub plenty of soft soap into the leather, and allow it 
to soak for two hours. Then rub it well until it is quite clean, 
and rinse it well in a weak solution composed of soda, yellow 
soap, and warm water. If rinsed in water only, it becomes 
liard when dry, and unfit for use. After rinsing, wring it well 
in a coarse towel, and dry quickly. Then pull it about and 
brush it well, and it will become softer and better than most 
new leathers. 

The chamois-skin used for wiping delicate articles should be 
carefully protected from dust and any hard foreign particles 
which are liable to scratch the highly polished surface of gold, 
silver, or glass. 

Court-plaster. — This is a very convenient application for 
slight wounds or cuts^ and is easily made. It ja fouijd of 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 55 

various colors, cliiefly black and flesh-colored ; and this depends 
altogetlier upon the color of the silk used, though if only white 
silk were at hand it would be easy to color it slightly with 
a little alkanet, or any other vegetable coloring-matter. The 
following formula gives good results: — 

Soak isinglass in a little warm water for 24 hours; then 
evaporate nearly all the water by gentle heat; dissolve the 
residue in a little proof spirits of wine (alcohol of 85 per cent), 
and strain the whole through a piece of open linen. The 
strained mass should be a stiff jelly when cool. Now stretch 
a piece of silk or sarsanet on a wooden frame, and fix it tight 
with tacks or packthread. Melt the jelly, and apply it to the 
silk thinly and evenly with a badger-hair or any very fine 
brush. A second coating must be applied when the first has 
dried, and in some cases even a third is given. When thor- 
oughly dry, apply over the whole surfaea ^wo or three coatings 
of balsam of Peru. 

Plaster thus made is said to be very pliable, and never 
breaks. The quality of court-plaster depends upon the quality 
of the silk used, and also upon the care taken to exclude all 
irritating and poisonous matter. Many of the dyed silks are 
absolutely poisonous ; and if the isinglass is kept too long in 
water, so as to become tainted, it may cause serious injury. 

Crucible. — This important instrument is used alike by the 
scientific metallurgist, the practical founder, and the amateur. 
The shape of the crucible and the material of which it is made 
vary very much, the selection of a suitable article depending 
upon the nature of the substance to be heated, and particularly 
of the flux used. Black-lead crucibles are largely used for 
melting metals, common and precious. Good crucibles of this 
material withstand sudden changes of temperature, and may 
be used over and over again, and the smoothness of their sur- 
face obviates one great source of loss, as the particles of melted 
metal do not adhere to the sides. 

The metals employed for making crucibles are platinum, 
gold^ silver, and iroji. Platinum resists intense heat, but is 



56 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

easily acted upon by caustic alkalies and by the fusible metals, 
or any compound from which they may be reduced. Gold is 
too expensive for crucibles, except in important and delicate 
experiments. Silvei* crucibles and dishes are used for fusing 
caustic alkalies. Crucibles of iron are used for roasting many 
chemical solutions; and they are also used for melting the 
more fusible metals, such as lead, zinc, tin, etc. 

It will rarely pay the amateur to try to make a crucible, as 
they can be bought so easily and cheaply; but sometimes it 
may be found necessary to do so. The material will, in gen- 
eral, be some refractory kind of clay, — good fire-clay answer- 
ing well. Where no very high degree of heat is to be employed, 
the clay may be mixed with sand ; but if the crucible is to be 
exposed to a very high temperature the mixture of sand and 
clay will soften, if it does not actually melt. In such cases 
coarsely powdered fire-brick or old crucibles should be sub- 
stituted for sand. 

The materials, having been ground and kneaded, are gen- 
erally molded by hand upon a wooden block of the shape of 
the cavity of the crucible. Another method of shaping a 
crucible consists in ramming the ingredients into a suitable 
mold, formed of steel or gun-metal. 

A writer in the Journal of the Society of Arts has devised a 
very neat and expeditious method of forming small crucibles 
by pouring *^slip," that is, clay mixed with sufficient water to 
give it the consistence of cream, into porous molds, made of 
plaster of Paris. A series of these molds are placed upon a 
table and filled with the semifluid composition. By the time 
the whole (say 50 or 60) are filled, the ^'slip" may be poured 
out of the one first filled, leaving only a very small quantity 
behind to give the requisite thickness to the bottom. The 
second and third may then be treated in the same way, until 
the whole number has been attended to. In each mold a 
perfect crucible is formed by the abstraction of the water of 
that portion of the ^'slip" in immediate contact with the 
plaster; and the crucible is either thicker or thinner in prg- 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 57 

portion to the time this absorbent action has been allowed to 
go on. Seventy or eighty crucibles may thus be easily made 
in less than fifteen minutes. The molds and their contents 
are next placed in a stove or slow oven. In a short time, from 
the contraction of the clay in drying, the crucibles may be 
removed; and the molds, as soon as they have become dry, 
may be again filled. By care they will last for years. 

The amateur chemist will often find that the bowl of a 
tobacco-pipe will make a very good crucible. The hole at the 
bottom should be well plugged with a little of the ground 
tobacco-pipe made into a paste with pipeclay and water. 

Diamond. — Diamond-dust may be bought in most large 
cities ready prepared. It is not a very costly article, as it is 
made of waste pieces obtained in cutting jewels, and a little 
of it lasts a long time. 

Diamond-mills, as they are called, are made either of brass 
or iron. The mill, having been turned to proper shape, is laid 
firmly on some solid substance, and the face that is to be im- 
pregnated with diamond-dust is slightly oiled. The dust is 
then sprinkled thinly over it and tapped lightly with a smooth 
hammer till the diamond-dust is thoroughly driven into the 
brass. The brass will bur around it, and hold it securely in 
place. The oil is used to prevent the dust from bounding off 
while undergoing the process of hammering. 

Files and broaches may be made in the same way. They 
will cut the hardest material. Polishing broaches are usually 
made of ivory, and used with diamond-dust loose instead of 
being driven in. Oil the broach lightl}^, dip it into the finest 
diamond-dust, and proceed to use it as you would a brass 
broach. 

Dubbing. — This term is applied to various greasy com- 
pounds employed by curriers and shoemakers for softening 
and preserving leather. 

1. Cuttings of sheepskips boiled in cod-oil. Said to be used 
b7 curriers. 



58 THE WORKSHOP TOMPANION. 

2. Black resin, 2 oz.; tallow, 1 lb.; crude cod-oil or train-oil, 
1 gallon. Boil until the tallow and resin are thoroughly dis- 
solved and mixed. 

3. Any good fish-oil or tallow. 

The leather or hides to be greased are first moistened; and 
having been rubbed with the greasy matter are dried in heated 
rooms, so that the hides, by actually combining with the fatty 
materials, become, as it were, tanned and tawed at the same 
time. In the case of hides, therefore, the greasing is not 
simply an operation of dressing, but in reality a second tanning 
(technically tawing) process. — Wagner, 

Ebony. — Ebonir^ing. — Although *' ebony" is a synonym for 
blackness, there are several colors of this wood — yellow, red, 
and green, as well as black. The black variety, however, is 
always meant when ebony is spoken of. 

There are several varieties, depending chiefly upon the place 
of growth. That from Africa is the best, and is the only kind 
used for sextants. Pianoforte-keys are generally made of the 
East Indian variety. Ebony is often used for inlaying, in con- 
trast with ivory; and it is also a favorite material for cabinet- 
work, turnery, flutes, door-handles, knife-handles, etc. It may 
be worked like any other bard wood, and with the same 
tools. 

Other hard woods are often stained to imitate ebony; and 
when close-grained and well dyed it is sometimes difficult to 
distinguish them. Many samples of black ebony are not as 
black as is desirable, and to bring them to the required color 
it is necessary to dye them. A writer in The English Mechanic 
says that a good black ink isiis effectual as any stain to blacken 
the sharps of a piano. It is, perliaps, not generall}^ known 
that, though made of ebony, these keys always require staining, 
as true ebony is rather brown than black, and full of a yellow- 
ish grain. Old keys are probably saturated with grease: they 
should therefore be treated with potash first. 

But while the real ebony has an indescribable richness which 
it Is atoo§t impossible to imitate^ the decjaiid for black wood 



THE WOKKSHOP COMPANION. 59 

so far exceeds the supply that recourse is extensively had to 
imitation. There are two metliods of so-called ebonizing in 
use: one is a mere black varnish, the other is a veritable dye. 
The varnish never proves satisfactory, as it generally has a 
slimy appearance, and does not show the rich dead-black grain 
of the wood, which is the thing to be admired. Moreover, 
whenever the article gets scratched or cut, the color of the 
original wood shows through and shows the sham at once. 

The old stain for ebonizing was simply a black iron dye 
made by first soaking the wood in a solution of logwood and 
galls, and then applying a solution of acetate of iron. A much 
finer effect is, however, produced by the use of nigrosine, — one 
of the aniline dyes. It is to be purchased ready made ; and 
the solution is found in market, and known as ''ebonizing 
liquid." 

Eelskin. — The skin of the eel, when properly prepared, is 
not excelled for toughness, pliability, and durability, by any 
other material, except perhaps the dried and well-worked 
pizzle of the bull, which in olden times was largely used for 
connecting the two parts of the threshing-flail. The eelskin 
should be tacked to a board, rubbed well with fat of some 
kind, dried, and then worked over the round edge of a board 
until it is perfectly supple. It may then be cut into strips of 
any width. As a lacing for belts, or as a material for making 
'•catgut," it is unequalled. A mill-owner who has used eelskins 
largely for belt-lacing says: "Eelskins make the best possible 
strings for lacing belts. One lace will outlast any belt, and 
will stand wear and hard usage where hooks or any other 
fastenings fail. Our mill being on the bank of the river, we 
keep a net set for eels, which, when wanted, are taken out in 
the morning and skinned, and the skins are stuck on a smooth 
board. When dry we cut them in two strings, — making the 
eelskin, in three hours from the time the fish is taken from the 
w^ater, travel in a belt. 

Engravings. — To transfer to wood. — Fine engravings, neatly 
ti'^nsf erred to a wooden surface, form as prettjr an orn^njeat^ 



60 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

tion as can be wished, and may often be utilized in the finish- 
ing of articles made of wood. The process is as follows: — 

First varnish the wood once with white hard varnish, which 
facilitates the transferring; then cut off the margins of the 
print, which should be on unsized paper, that is, paper that 
absorbs like bloiting-paper; and wet the back of it with a 
sponge and water, using enough water to saturate the paper, 
but not so as to be watery on the printed side. Then, with a 
flat camel-hair brush, give it a coat of transfer (alcoholic) var- 
nish on the printed side, and apply it immediately — varnishod 
side downwards — on the woodwork, placing a sheet of paper 
on it and pressing it down with the hand till every part ad- 
heres. Then, gently rub away the back of the print with the 
fingers till nothing but a thin pulp remains. It may require 
being wetted again before all that will come (or rather ought 
to come) off is removed. Great care is required in this opera- 
tion, that the design or printed side be not disturbed. When 
this is done, and quite dry, give the work a coat of white hard 
varnish, and it will appear as if printed on the wood. 

Fahlun Brilliants. — Pieces of metal cast with plane facets 
in the form of crystals. They reflect the liglit so as to have a 
dark luster. The allo}^ of which they are made is compofced of 
tin 29, lead 19. This alloy when melted will adhere to the 
polished surfaces with which it is in contact and leave them 
on cooling. The thickness of tlie deposit is regulated at w^ill 
by the time of contact. It is also used for making metacllic 
mirrors. 

Fazie Metal. — An alloy said to be composed of wrought 
iron, cast-iron, and brass. The bronze or brass and the cast 
and wrought-iron are melted separately ; then mixed, and con- 
tinually stirred even while being poured out. 

Fluxes. — ^'Fluxes are very frequently required in cases of 
chemical action amongst metallic compounds at high tempera- 
tures, and often can not be dispensed with. Their use is to 
protect the substance from the air; to dissolve impurities 
wbich >yould otherwise be infusible; and to convey ^ctivQ 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 61 

agents, as charcoal and reducing matter, into contact with 
the substance operated upon." — Faraday. 

In the large way, limestone and fluor spar are used as fluxes. 
On the small scale, the fluxes chiefly used are black flux, white 
flux, crude flux, and glass. 

1. Black Flux. — Nitre, 1 part; crude tartar or cream of tar- 
tar, 2 parts; mix, and deflagrate, by small quantities at a time, 
in a crucible, heated to dull redness. The product consists of 
carbonate of potassa, mixed with charcoal in a finely divided 
sta^te. Used for smeltiug metallic ores. It exercises a reducing 
action, as well as promotes the fusion. It must be kept in a 
dry corked bottle. 

2. White. Fhfx, — Into a large earthen crucible, heated to red- 
ness, tlirow successive portions of a mixture of 2 parts of nitre 
and 1 of tartar. Keep it as the last. 

3. Crtide Flux is the mixture of nitre and tartar before de- 
flagration. 

4. Cliristison^s Flux for reducing arsenic. — Mix crystallized 
carbonate of soda with one eighth of charcoal, and heat grad- 
ually to redness. 

5. Fresennis'^s Flux for reducing sulplniret of arsenic. — Dry 
carbonate of potash 3 parts, cyanide of potassium 1 part. 

6. Cornish JReducing Flux. — Cream of tartar 10 parts, nitre 
Si, borax 3. Triturate well together. 

7. Morveau''s Flux. — Pulverized glass (free from lead) 8 parts, 
calcined borax i part, charcoal i part. Used as black flux. 

8. Taylor^s Flux. — Saturate a solution of tartaric acid with 
carbonate of soda, evaporate to dryness, and calcine in a cov- 
ered platinum crucible. 

Furniture : its care and renovation. — Every house should 
have a few joiner's tools, a glue-pot, a paint-brush or two, and 
a box of nails, screws, and brads. With these few tools and 
other supplies, a handy boy or girl or housekeeper should be 
able to keep all the furniture in a moderate-sized house in tol- 
erably good order if the following hints, suggestions, and in- 
structions are followed. 



62 THE wore:sho? companion. 

The moment a piece of furniture shows signs of fracture, 
shakiness, or abrasion, it should be removed from actual use 
and repaired at once, or left unused until an opportunity arises 
to repair it. If it is a case of loose joints, and the spindles or 
tenons slip out of their mortises or holes, the old glue should 
be removed from both hole and tenon, if possible, and fresh 
hot glue applied to the work, which should be firmly held to- 
gether until dry and hard, either by strings, clamps, or weights. 
When the work is put together and firmly secured, it should 
remain where placed untouched for at least twenty-four hours, 
so as to get dry and hard before being used. In many cases 
when a spindle gets loose in a chair or other piece of furniture, 
it is left loose until the spindle wears too small for the hole or 
the hole wears too large for the spindle, or both combine to 
make matters worse. When this is the case there is no use in 
using glue to make the spindle stay in place, as glue will not 
hold any two bodies unless the bodies fit closely together. 
The best way, then, to repair furniture in this state is to make 
a judicious use of screws, always making sure to bore holes 
for the screws, having the hole for the neck or straight part 
of the screw a trifle larger than the diameter of the screw, said 
the hole where the threaded or screiv part of the screw enters 
a trifle smaller than the diameter of the threaded portion. 
The reason of this is quite obvious. Sometimes both glue and 
screw may be used to advantage. Nails should never be used 
in repairing furniture, unless by skilled workmen. Brads may 
sometimes be used with advantage in repairing broken carv- 
ings or in assisting glue to hold broken parts together; but 
even then should be used sparingly, and should never be driven 
without first having holes made for them by a brace and a 
small gimlet. 

When knobs, door-handles, or drawer-pulls get loose or falV 
off, they should be attended to at once ; and if the screws that 
hold them in place have worked loose and will not keep their 
grip, they should be taken out and new screws one or two 
Bizes larger put in their places. This will, in most cases, re- 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 63 

pair the defect. Sometimes, when knobs are used, the nut on 
the bolt that goes through the drawer front becomes so wowi 
that it will not hold. When this is the case the nut may be 
hammered on its edge on a stone or a flat piece of iron and 
made so that it will hold for a time; or, if the nut has worn 
smooth, a piece of hard sole-leather, cut neat and round, and 
a small hole pierced through it, may be made to do service for 
a time; but these are only expedients at best, and seldom 
prove lasting remedies. The better way, when conditions will 
admit, is to cut the bolt off, just where it projects through the 
nut, and then rivet it solid to the drawer. Where this can not 
be done, the best way is to get a new knob or substitute some 
other kind of a pull. When drawers get rickety they should 
have square blocks of pine glued solid in their corners. This, 
when well done, prevents them from falling in pieces. Some- 
times a drawer may be helped very much by having the bottom 
bradded in nicely. The brads help to keep the whole drawer 
together and rigid, If drawers do not slide easily they may be 
helped very materially by rubbing their sides and lower edges 
with dry soap. Castile is the best. 

The moment a castor gets loose it shoula be seen to at once, 
or torn carpets, broken furniture, or ruined castor, will be the 
result. If the castor is broken or irreparably damaged, it 
should be removed and another one put in place : if this is not 
done all the other castors in the same piece of furniture should 
be removed until the whole set can be replaced. 

When the woodwork on furniture-sets gets bruised it may be 
repaired by adopting the following: Wet the part bruised with 
warm water; double a piece of brown paper five or six times, 
soak the paper in the warm water and lay it on the place; 
apply on that a flatiron made moderately warm, and hold there 
until the moisture has nearly all evaporated. This will usually 
raise the indented part; but if it.should not, simply repeat the 
process. Where the bruises are small, wet the part, and then 
hold a red-hot iron near the spot, and the bruise will soon dis- 
appear. 



64 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

When the braiding or gimp on the upholstery part of fur- 
niture shows signs of wear or a tendency to get loose, it should 
be firmly fastened to the wood by a free use of gimp-tacks. 
These tacks may be obtained at any hardware store, and a 
paper or two should be kept in every well-directed household. 

The following recipes will be found very useful in keeping 
furniture in good order : — 

When carved work has to be polished or renovated, take 
half a pint of linseed-oil, half a pint of old ale, the white of an 
egg, one oz. spirits of wine, one oz. spirits of salts. Shake 
well before using. A little to be applied to the face of a soft 
linen pad, and lightly rubbed for a minute, or two over the 
article to be restored, which must afterward be polished off 
with an old silk handkerchief. This polish will keep any 
length of time if well corked. The polish is useful for delicate 
cabinet-work; it is also recommended for papier-mache work. 

For taking stains out of woodwork of various kinds, use ore 
of the following that is most suitable : — 

Ink-stains may be removed from a mahogany or cherry table 
by putting a few drops of spirits of salt into a teaspoonful of 
water, and touching the part stained with a featuer dipped 
into the mixture. Immediately the ink-stain disappears, the 
place must be rubbed with a rag wet with cold water^ or there 
will be a white mark which will not easily be removed. Ink- 
stains on silver or plated articles may be removed immediately 
and effectually without doing any injury to the things, by 
making a little chloride of lime into a paste with water and 
rubbing the stains until they disappear, and afterwards wash- 
ing the article with soap and water. Ink-stains may be re- 
moved from colored table-covers by dissolving a teaspoonful 
of oxalic acid in a teacupful of hot water and rubbing the 
stained part well with the solution. Ink-stains may be taken 
out of anything white by simply putting a little powdered 
salts of lemon on the stain, damping it, allowing it to re- 
main about five minutes, and then washing it out with soap 
and water, when the stain will disappear. Ink-stains may be 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 65 

removed from boards by applying some strong muriatic acid 
or spirits of salt with a rag, and afterwards well washing the 
place with water. 

For removing other stains, take half a pint of soft water, 
and put into it an ounce of oxalic acid and half an ounce of 
butter of antimony. Shake it well, and when dissolved it will 
be very useful in extracting stains as well as ink from wood, 
if not of too long standing. 

To remove Paint or Stains from TToot^ic'or^*.*— Dissolve potash 
in water, making a strong solution. With this wash the sur* 
face of the work, allowing it to soak a few minutes. If the 
paint can not then be scraped off, give the wood another ap- 
plication, and repeat until the paint is removed. Afterward, 
Vf^ash the surface with clean water sufficiently to insure the 
removal of all the potash. 

For taking off varnish from cabinet-work, use a strong appli- 
cation of ordinary spirits of camphor. This will remove almost 
any kind of polish or varnish. Give the spirits time to evap- 
orate before repolishing, or it will injure the new polish. 

The solution of potash mentioned above will also remove 
varnish, and must be carefully washed off before any new 
varnish is applied. 

It sometimes happens that marble tops of tables or other 
furniture get so scratched that repolishing becomes necessary. 
The following is the process used by the mason, and will, 
therefore, be acceptable in a work like the present. With a 
piece of sandstone with a very fine grit, rub the slab backward 
and forward, using very fine sand and water, till the marble 
appears equally rough, and not in scratches. Next use a finer 
stone and finer sand, till its surface appears equally gone over; 
then, with fine emerj-powder and a piece of felt or old hat 
wrapped round a weight, rub till all the marks left by the 
former process are worked out, and it appears with a compar- 
ative gloss on its surface. Afterward finish the polish with 
putty-powder and fine clean rags. As soon as the face appears 
of a good gloss, do not put any more powder on the rags, but 



6G THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

rnb it well, and in a short time it will appear as if fresh from 
the mason's hands. 

Another. — Make a thick paste with rotten-stone and olive-oil, 
and vigorously rub the marble with it on a cloth. 

To polish black marble, proceed as follows: Wash it with 
warm soap and water, and when dry rub it well with furniture 
paste or French polish, and then rub it with an old silk hand- 
kerchief. After one or two trials it will become quite bright. 

To remove stains on marble, apply spirits of salt and care- 
fully wash off. 

To clean Marhle. — Mix the strongest soap-lees with quick- 
lime to the consistency of milk; let it lie on the stone, etc., 
for twenty -four hours ; then clean it off, and wash with soap 
and water, and it will appear as new. The polish will require 
to be renewed by the process given above. 

Another, — Mix with a quarter pint of soap-lees half a gill of 
turpentine, sufficient pipeclay and bullock's gall to make the 
whole into a rather thick paste. Apply it to the marble with a 
soft brush ; and after a day or two, when quite dry, rub it off 
with a soft rag. Apply this a second or third time till the 
marble is quite clean. 

To clean Pictures. — Wash them with a sponge or soft leather 
pad and water, and dry by rubbing with a silk handkerchief. 
When the picture is very dirty, take it out of its frame, procure 
a clean towel, and making it quite wet, lay it on the face of 
the picture, sprinkling it from time to time with clear soft 
water; let it remain wet for two or three days; take the cloth 
off and renew it with a fresh one ; after wiping the picture 
with a clean wet sponge, repeat the process till all the dirt is 
soaked out; then wash it well with a soft sponge, and let it 
get dry; rub it with some clear nut or linseed-oil. Spirits of 
wine and turpentine may be used to dissolve the hard old var- 
nish, but they will attack the paint as well as the varnish if 
the further action of the spirits is not stopped at the proper 
time by using water freely. 

There are conditions where the above simple process will 



I^HE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 67 

not aeeoitiplish what is required; where a thick coating of 
varnish has been applied to the picture, and it has been hung 
ill a smoky room, and dust and dirt have been allowed to gather 
and remain; then it is that no liigh lights will be visible, the 
sky will be dirty, no distance visible, and perliaps the figures 
in tlie foregi'ound very indistinct. Under these conditions tlie 
varnish must be either removed or the smoke and dust must 
be brought out of the varnish. If it is thought desirable to 
try the latter, the following recipe will be found valuable for 
the purpose: 2 oz. wood naphtha, 1 oz. spirits of salts, i pint of 
linseed-oil. 

Mix the above well together, and before using shake the 
bottle. It can be used as follows: Get some soft linen rag, 
and make up a soft pad, which place on the mouth of the 
bottle and shake up some of the mixture into the pad; then 
commence rubbing the picture with a circular motion, and 
when nearly dry again give the pad another dressing of mix- 
ture, and continue this mode of procedure for some time, when 
the picture will gradually come out in all its detail. 

Paintings sometimes get convex and concave patches on 
tlieir surface, owing to pressure on one side or the other, and 
these inequalities cause a great deal of trouble to bring out. 
The most successful way is to well wet both sides of the pic- 
ture on the spot, and keep it under pressure till dry. With 
small pictures the quickest way would be to take them o£l the 
stretcher and lay them in a press, with a light pressure, be- 
tween soft sheets of paper. 

In cleaning mounted engravings, first cut a stale loaf of bread 
in half with a perfectly clean knife; pare the crust away from 
the edges. Now place the engravings on a perfectly flat table, 
and rubbing the surface with the fresh-cut bread, in circular 
sweeps, lightly but firmly performed, will remove all super- 
ficial markings. Now soak the prints for a short time in a 
dilate solution of hydrochloric acid, say 1 part acid to 100 of 
water, and then remove tliem into a vessel containing a suffi- 
cient quantity of clear chloride of lime water to cover them. 



68 THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 

Leave them there until bleached to the desired point. Now 
remove, rinse well by allowing to stand an hour in a pan in 
which a constant stream of water is allowed to flow, and finally 
dry off by spreading on clean cloths. Perhaps the sheets may 
require ironing between two sheets of clean paper. 

If the engraving is not mounted, put it on a smooth board, 
and cover it thinly with common salt finely powdered. Squeeze 
lemon-juice upon the salt, so as to dissolve a considerable por- 
tion of it; elevate one end of the board so that it may form an 
angle of about 45 or 50 degrees. Pour on the engraving boiling 
w^ater from a teakettle until the salt and lemon-juice be all 
washed off. The 'engraving will then be perfectly clean and 
free from stains. It must be dried on the board or some 
smooth surface gradually. If dried by the fire or the sun it 
will be tinged wdth a yellow color. 

When cane-bottomed chairs get loose, or lose their elasticity, 
they may be renovated and their elasticity restored by turning 
up the chair-bottoms, and with hot water and a sponge wash 
the cane-work well, so that it may be well soaked. Should it 
be dirty you must add soap. Let it dry in the air, and you 
will find it as tight and firm as w^hen new, provided the cane 
is not broken. 

For cleaning carpets, heavy draperies, or hangings, first free 
the fabric from dust by having it well shaken or beaten ; then 
stretch it, either on the floor or other convenient place; then 
mix half a pint of bullock's gall with two gallons of soft water; 
scrub it w^ell with soap and the gall-mixture; let it remain till 
quite dry, and it wdll be perfectly cleansed and look like new, 
as the colors will be restored to their original brightness. The 
brush used must not be too hard, but rather long in the hair, 
or it wdll rub up the nap and damage the article. 

To destroy moths or other insects that infest carpets, pour 
a strong solution of alum-water on the floor to the distance of 
half a yard around the edges before laying tbe carpets. Then 
once or twice during the season sprinkle dry salt over the car- 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 69 

pet before sweeping. Insects do not like salt, and sufficient 
adheres to the carpet to prevent them alighting upon it. 

Another plan is to take a wet sheet or other cloth, lay it 
upon the carpet, and then rub a hot flatiron over it, so as to 
convert the water into steam, which permeates the carpet be- 
neath, and destroys the life of the grub. 

There are many recipes given for destroying the small in- 
sects that infest stuffed upholstery work, but none seems so 
effective as fumigation; but as this is a process that generally 
results in damage to the woodwork of the articles fumigated, 
or in destroying the colors of the fabrics, it is not to be thought 
of by persons who are not experts. 

A free use of a camphorated solution is, perhaps, the safest 
remedy in these cases, though sometimes Persian powder may 
be used with advantage ; but care should be taken in its use, 
particularly when there are children, or unpleasant conse- 
quences may ensue. 

To polish hardwood floors in dining-rooms or halls, put some 
spermaceti into a saucepan on the fire, and mix it with enough 
turpentine to make it quite fluid; then with a piece of flannel 
put it very thinly on the floor. It must then be rubbed with a 
dry flannel and brushed in the same way that oak stairs are 
polished. This part of the process — rubbing and brushing — 
takes a long time to do thoroughly. 

Another. — Dissolve half a pound of potash in three pints of 
water, in a saucepan on the flre. When the w^ater boils throw 
in one pound of beeswax cut up in small pieces ; stir it well 
until the wax is quite melted. When the polish is cold, if it 
be too thick add more water; then with a brush paint the 
boards evenly with it; and when it has dried rub them with a 
flannel tied at the end of a broom. 

A paste that will be found excellent for laying cloth or leather 
on desks, writing-tables, or other similar work, may be made 
as follows: — 

To a pint of the best w'heaten flour add resin, very finely 
powdered, about two large spoonfuls; of alum, one spoonful, 



70 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

in powder; mix tliem all well together, put them into a pan, 
and add by degrees soft or rain water, carefully stirring it till 
it is of the consistence of thinnish cream ; put it into a sauce- 
pan over a clear fire, keeping it constantly stirred that it may 
not get lumpy. When it is of a stiff consistence, so that the 
spoon will stand upright in it, it is done enough. Be careful 
to stir it well from the bottom, for it will burn if not well 
attended to. Empty it out into a pan and cover it over till 
cold, to prevent a skin forming on the top, which would make 
it lumpy. 

This paste is very superior for the purpose, and adhesive. 
To use it for cloth or baize, spread the paste evenly and 
smoothly on the top of the table, and lay the cloth on it, press- 
ing and smoothing it with a flat piece of wood. Let it remain 
till dry; then trim the edges close to the cross-banding. If 
you cut it close at first, it will, in drying, shrink and look bad 
where it meets the banding all round. If used for leather, the 
leather must be first previously damped, and then the paste 
spread over it ; then lay it on the table, and rub it smooth and 
level with a linen cloth, and cut the edges close to the banding 
with a sharp knife. Some lay their table-cover with glue in- 
stead of paste, and for cloth perhaps it is the best method; 
but for leather it is not proper, as glue is apt to run through. 
In using it for cloth, great care must be taken that the glue be 
not too thin, and that the cloth be well rubbed down with a 
thick piece of wood made hot at the fire, for the glue soon 
chills. By this method the edges may be cut off close to the 
border at once. 

For ^'Staining," ^^Ebonizing," ^^Polishing," ^'Painting,'' 
** Gluing," '^Gilding," ^'Bronzing," ^^ Varnishing," and using 
** Cements," see the items given under the above headings, in 
the former part of this work. 

Lutes. — The distinction between lutes and cements is not 
always very obvious. As a general rule, however, a lute is a 
cement used for connecting, temj^orarily, the parts of a piece 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 71 

of apparatus or for coating and protecting apparatus that is 
to be exposed to intense heat. 

Lutes for joining apparatus ni;iy be needed both for low and 
high temperatures; for acid or corrosive liquids or vapors, or 
for those which are easily resisted; and tlic operator must 
exercise good judgment in this respect if he would secure 
success. The lutes described in the following paragraphs 
afford an abundant variety for most purposes. Those who 
have occasion to make extensive use of lutes are recommended 
to read carefully the chapter on tliis subject in Faraday^s 
"Chemical Manipulations," a work which may be old but can 
never be entirely superseded. For the joining of tubes of glass 
or metal, the rubber tubing, which, at the time Faraday wrote, 
was almo^st unknown, now affords a cheap, simple, and effect- 
ive means, — far better than any lute, — where the tempera- 
tures are not too high. Wiien the apparatus has to be exposed 
to a heat at which rubber will soften or melt, recourse must 
be had to one of the old-fashioned lutes. The following lutes 
are employed for making joints which do not require to be 
exposed to a high temperature : — 

Glazier^s Putt}j. — This makes a very good lute for many pur- 
poses, and is frequenth^used for covering the stoppers or corks 
of bottles containing strong acids. But owing to the fact that 
glazier's putty is made with carbonate of lime (whiting) it is 
not well adapted to this purpose. If the acids come in contact 
with tlie putty the carbonate is decomposed, and the resulting 
gas forces off the lute and renders it worthless. 

Fat Lute. — This is similar to putty, but instead of whiting 
finely powdered clay is used. The lute should be well beaten 
and mixed, as upon this depends its excellence. The clay is 
not acted upon by any of the common acids, however strong, 
and the lute is therefore well adapted to closing joints, etc., 
when these liquids or their vapors are in use. Before applying 
this lute to a joint the glass should be wiped perfectly dry, 
otherwise the lute will not adhere; and if the joint is to be 
made very hot, the lute should be held to its place by strips of 



72 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

bladder or even of linen. The oil used is the best drying 
linseed-oil, and the clay is pipeclay. 

Strips of Bladder, — A very excellent means of joining tubes 
is to wind strips of bladder round the ends after they have 
been placed in position. The bladder should be soaked in 
water until soft, and if smeared with white of egg it will be 
the better. For all vRpors except corrosive acids this makes 
an excellent joint. 

Plaster of Paris. — This may be used occasionally for making 
joints tight either at common or moderately high temperatures. 
For the best methods of selecting, preserving, and preparing 
it, see the article on Plaster of Paris. When applied as a lute 
it may be made perfectly airtight by coating it with paraffine 
oil or wax. When it is mixed up with very thin glue instead 
of water it takes a longer time to solidify, but ultimately 
makes a much harder and stronger cement. When prepared 
with water alone it may be raised to a dull red heat without 
injury, but if mixed with organic matter (oil, wax, glue, etc.) 
it will not support so high a temperature unchanged. 

Lime Cement. — This is made of caustic lime mixed with 
white of egg, glue, blood, milk, or similar matters. See Parotic 
Cement. 

The lime should be freshly burned, slaked with just enough 
water to make it fall to powder and still be quite dry; and 
then it may be kept in a closely stoppered bottle. When white 
of egg is used, it should be beaten as is done by cooks in mak- 
ing cake, etc. It may then be diluted with an equal bulk of 
water, and the powdered lime added until the whole, when 
well mixed, forms a thin paste. This is spread on strips of 
cloth and wrapped round the joint. Faraday tells us that this 
lute will bear a heat approaching to visible ignition without 
injury. 

Eubher Cement. — Dissolve 1 part of india-rubber in 2 parts 
of linseed-oil, by heat, and work into a stiff paste with 3 parts, 
or as much as sufficient, of white clay. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 73 

Water Glass Cement. — A concentrated solution of isilicate of 
soda, made into a paste with powdered glass. 

Wax Lute. — Beeswax melted and mixed with sufficient 
linseed-oil to render it pliable at a blood-heat. 

Soft Cement. — This is made of beeswax melted wdth its 
weight of turpentine, and colored with a little Venetian red. 
Wlien cold it has the hardness of common yellow soap, but at 
a blood-heat it is soft and easily molded. Its great use is to 
make tight the joints of apparatus used for preparing gases, 
etc., at common temperatures. 

Bottle Lute. — Ordinary bottle-wax is used for closing the 
pores of corks and ornamenting their tops; but where it is 
desirable to hermetically seal a bottle containing matters 
which are to be kept for some time, the following preparation 
is to be preferred : — 

Take equal parts of common resin and beeswax and enough 
red ochre and turpentine to bring the whole to a proper con- 
sistency. These must be melted over a fire iii the following 
manner; and the vessel in which it is made should be capable 
of holding three times the quantity required, to allow ample 
room for boiling up. An earthenware pipkin with a handle is 
the best thing for the purpose, and a lid must be made of tin 
to fit it. The luting will be rendered more or less brittle, or 
elastic, as the red ochre prevails. The wax is first melted, 
and then the resin; the ochre is then added in small quantities, 
and stirred quickly with a spatula each time. When all the 
ochre has been added, it must be allowed to boil six or eight 
minutes; the turpentine is then added, and briskly stirred 
with the spatula, and continued boiling. There is considerable 
risk of the mixture taking fire. Should it do so, the lid must 
immediately be put on the vessel to extinguish it. 

If the bottles are to be kept a very long time, a little linseed- 
oil added to this mixture will prevent it becoming brittle by 
the evaporation of the turpentine. 

For making joints that are to remain tight at high temper- 
atures, we have found nothing better than good fire-clay well 



74 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

beaten to a paste with water and mixed with fine clean sand. 
For'example, in making oxygen (which is now freely nsed in 
the arts), we use a retort consisting of a small castiron pot, 
with a lid rudely fitted. It is of no use to grind the lid care- 
fully into its seat, for the process is not only too troublesome, 
but the joint soon becomes imperfect from the oxidation of 
the metal. The casting is left rough, the groove in the edge 
of the pot is filled with clay and sand prepared as described, 
and the lid is forced down so that the projection is forced into 
the lute. Such a joint, made with moderately stiff clay, may 
be placed in the fire at once, and will withstand a pressure of 
many ])Ounds to the square inch. A retort of this kind is the 
most convenient article for all kinds of distillation and gas- 
making at high temperatures, as it is easily put together, 
easily taken apart, easily changed, and easily cleaned. 

It is sometimes necessary to coat glass and metal apparatus 
that is to be exposed to a hot fire. This prevents the burning 
of the one and the melting of the other. 

Coating J or Glass Vessels. — 1. Dissolve one ounce of borax 
in a half pint of water, and add slaked lime to form a thin 
paste. Brush this over the retort, and let it dry gradually. 
Then apply a coating of slaked lime and linseed-oil beaten 
together. Let it dry a day or two before use, and fill up any 
cracks which may appear with lime and linseed-oil. 

2. A lute which is said to be very efficient is made as fol- 
lows: Take fragments of porcelain, pulverize and sift them 
well, and add an equal quantit}^ of fine clay, previously soft- 
ened with as much of a saturated solution of muriate of soda 
as is requisite to give the whole a proper consistence. Apply 2. 
thin and uniform coat of this composition to the glass vessels, 
and allow it to dry slowly before they are put on the fire. 

Clay Lute.— Good fire-clay is mixed with a little sand to 
prevent it splitting off. A little cut tow, or horse-dung, or 
asbestos, is usually added to increase its coherence. It should 
be beaten to a stiff paste, and rolled out before application. 
The glass should be first rubbed over with a little of the lute 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 75 

mixed with water, then placed in the center of the paste, 
rolled out to about a quarter or third of an inch il thickness, 
and the edges of the latter raised and molded to the glass, 
taking care to press out all the air. 

Mohr^s Lute.— ^iix equal parts of brick- dust and litharge, 
and beat them into a paste with linseed-oil. Apply this with 
a stiff brush, and dust it ovei with coarse sand. Dry it in a 
warm place. 

Notwithstanding Mohr^s high reputation we have not much 
confidence in this lute if exposed to heat. It is no doubt 
serviceable at common temperatures. 

Lute for Iron Retorts. — Five-clRy j 15 lbs.; carbonate of soda, 
1 lb.; water sufficient to make a thick paste. Apply to the 
crack when at a good working heat, and cover with fine coal- 
dust. 

Lute for Clay Betorts. — Five parts fire-clay, 2 parts white 
sand, 1 part of borax pressed and ground. Mix the whole 
together with as much water as may be necessary to bring it 
to the consistence of putty. Roll it in the hands to a ])roper 
length and apply it over the crack, pressing it with a long 
spatula into the crack. 

German Paste.— This well known food for insectivorous 
birds is prepared as follows: Pea-meal, 2 lbs.; sweet almonds 
(blanched), 1 lb.; butter or Jard, i ib.; moist sugar, 5 oz.; hay 
saffron, t <^^r. Beat to a smooth past«, adding a suflficient 
quantity of cold water; granulate the mass by passing it 
through a colander, and expose the product to the air in a 
warm place, until quite hard and dry. The addition of two or 
three eggs improves it. It will keep good for twelve months 
ill a dry place. 

Gumption, for Artists. — This is employed by the artist as 
a vehicle to use with some of his colors. It is composed of 
either poppy, nut, or linseed oil, to which a drying quality has 
been giveii by soaking in it for some days the acetate of lead, 
in the proportion oi one ounce to the pint of oil. This being 
poured off clear, is mixed, according to the judgment of the 



76 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

artist, with strong mastic varnish. It has much body, works 
easily, and dries rapidly. It may be diluted in use with spirits 
of turpentine. 

Gut, Silk"worin. — The raising of silkworms has recently 
become, in this country, a favorite pursuit with amateurs. 
Tlie following method of utilizing these interesting insects 
and of producing an article that will always be in considerable 
demand can not fail to be of value to many of our readers. 

To manufacture fine gut for angling take the best and 
largest silkworms you can procure, just when they are about 
to spin, which may be known by their refusing to eat, and 
having a fine silk thread hanging from their mouths. The 
worms must first be thrown into strong vinegar, and kept 
there covered close for twelve hours, if the summer be warm ; 
or fifteen hours in cooler weather. When taken out they must 
be pulled asunder, and you will see two transparent guts of a 
greenish yellow color, as thick as a small straw, bent double, 
the rest of the inside resembling boiled spinach. You can 
make no mistake. If you find the guts soft, or break upon 
stretching them, you must let them lie longer in the vinegar. 
When fit to draw out, stretch it gently with both hands till of 
a proper length, or nearly so. The gut drawn out must be 
fastened on a thin piece of board by putting each end in a slit 
made at the ends of the board. It is now to be placed in the 
sun to dry. 

It would seem that the character of the vinegar has a great 
influence upon the quality of the product. It must be pure 
and strong. That made from grape wine seems to succeed 
best, but further experiment is needed in this direction. 

Gutta-percha. — This substance is frequently confounded 
by the ignorant with india-rubber, from which, however, it is 
entirely distinct. It is obtained by evaporating the juice of 
Isonandra cjuttaj a tall tree which grows only in the Malayan 
Archipelago. A tree, which probably numbers fifty summers, 
is cut down, stripped of its bark, and the juice collected in a 
coeoanut-sheli or plantain-leaf; or else rings are cut in the 



THE WORKSHOP* COMPANION. 77 

bark, abotit ^ foot apart, and the sap collected and boiled 
down Gutta-percha, as imported from Malacca, contains 
several impurities, which consist of soluble salts, together 
with some organic matter, such as fragments of the bark, etc. 
It is purified by rasping with cold, and washing with warm 
water. Afterwards it is heated to 230 degrees Fall, to expel 
the water, which would interfere with its cohesive power; by 
being heated, it is also reduced to a single mass. Purified 
gutta-percha has a density of 0*979, and is a very bad con- 
ductor of electricity, for which reason it is so much used for 
insulating supports in electrical machines and coating the 
^wire of electric cables. Gutta-percha is not acted upon either 
"by water, hydrochloric or acetic acids, alkaline solutions, or 
alcohol. It is soluble in chloroform, benzol, bisulphide of 
carbon, rectified mineral naphtha, and rectified oil of tur- 
j>entine. 

There are three qualities of gutta-percha imported. The 
best, native, which occurs in tough flexible pieces, of a light 
"brown or chocolate color, of all sizes and shapes. Inferior 
native, which is lighter in color, and more easily torn in pieces 
than the above. Tlie boiled sort, which comes to Europe in 
oblong pieces: it probably consists of the two native sorts, 
boiled together to give it a fine appearance. 

The solution of gutta-percha has been found very useful as 
an artificial cuticle in the care of cuts, burns, and extensive 
abrasions. Mr. Acton, however, after making various exper- 
iments with solutions of gun-cotton, caoutchouc, and gutta- 
percha, arrived at the conclusion that a compound solution of 
caoutchouc with gutta-percha possesses the requisite qualities 
for preserving the skin against the action of contagious poisons, 
and also as a covering for the hands duriiag post-mortem ex- 
aminations. 

Gutta-percha has been used for belting, and as an insulator 
for covering wires for electrical purposes. When warmed it is 
perfectly plastic, and may be readily molded into any form. 
Indeed, it may be kneaded between the fingers into almost 



78 THE WOliKSHOP COMPANION, 

any form ; and consequently it has been used foi* various ex- 
temporized articles, such as stoppers for bottles, photographic 
batlis, voltaic battery cells, and an intiuite variety of surgical 
appliances. As it takes an impression of the very finest and 
most delicate lines and forms it has been formed into beau- 
tiful moldings, picture-frames, and other ornamental articles. 
When cool it is quite stiff and hard, and is quite durable. 

Hands, Care of the. — Clean, soft, well-formed hands and 
fingers are indispensable, not only to those who would make 
a good appearance in society, but to those who desire to excel 
in fine work. The engraver, the watchmaker, and many other 
artists find their usefulness and power greatly impeded by 
anything that affects the keenness of their sense of touch and 
the delicacy with which they can handle minute objects. The 
power of a well-educated sense of touch to detect irregularities 
in various articles is something marvelous. The turner can, 
by his mere fingers, detect in a turned rod defects which are 
invisible to the eyes and of which the callipers give no indica- 
tion. The extraordinary extent to which this sense may be 
educated is best seen in the blind, who train themselves to 
recognize various articles and even faces by means of touch. 
Tiieir ability to read by simply feeling raised letters is also a 
wonderful example of the power of this sense when properly 
educated. 

Like every other sense, that of touch must be carefully 
trained in order to make it efficient ; but all the training in the 
world will fail to make it sensitive if the tactile surface is 
dulled or injured. The things which tend to dull this sense 
are chiefly these: — 

1. Dirt. Any foreign matter which is allowed to remain on 
the hands combines with the perspiration and forms an incrus- 
tation which dulls the sense. 

2. Handling hot articles. Some persons train themselves to 
handle very hot articles, and prescriptions have even been 
given for rendering the hands insensible to heat. In all suck 
cases the skin is toughened and thickened, and the fine sensa' 



*fflE WORKSHOP COMPANION. ?9 

of touch dulled; but so loug as holders of various kinds are 
easily obtained, there can hardly be any reason or excuse for 
such a desecration of the hand. Boys are apt to try such ex- 
periments for the purpose of astonishing their friends and 
companions; but the loss which they sustain far outweiglis 
any momentary gratification derived from such exhibitions. 

3. Corrosive chemicals. Almost all salts and acids when 
brought into contact with the skin tend to make it rough and 
insensitive; and in the case of the hands, to disfigure and in- 
jure them. This is also true of strong, coarse soap, containing 
much alkali. 

For keeping the hands soft there is nothing better than a 
little vaseline well rubbed into the hands before going to bed. 
The new compound known as lanoUne, which is the carefully 
purified grease obtained from sheep^s wool, is also said to be 
peculiarly efficacious. 

The hands may be preserved dry for delicate work by rubbing 
a little club-moss pollen or lycopodium over them. This, which 
is an extremely fine resinous powder, is so repellant of moist- 
ure that if a small quantity of it be sprinkled on the surface 
of the water contained in a basin or pail, the hand, by a little 
adroitness, may be plunged to the bottom of the liquid without 
becoming wet. 

Harness. — Great errors are frequently committed in the 
care of harness, and it often happens that from ignorance or 
want of thought much injury is done. This arises principally 
from the fact that there are two very distinct parts of all 
harness, and each requires, or at least will bear, very dis- 
tinct treatment. Those parts which require to be pliable 
and soft should never be dressed with shellac varnishes or 
drying oils, as all such compounds tend to make the leather 
hard in a short time, so that it soon cracks and becomes weak. 
There are some parts, however, such as the saddle, blinders, 
etc., which are never expected to bend. Varnish does not 
hurt these parts, but, on the contrary, greatly improves their 
appearance. 



80 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

All harness that is in constant use should be washed, oiled, 
and blacked, at frequent intervals. Some harness should be 
oiled three or four times a year, while carriage harness, which 
is used only once or twice a week, if kept in a clean harness^ 
room or harness-closet, will need oiling only once a year, un- 
less after exposure to drenching rain, when it should be care- 
fully oiled and blacked as soon as it is dry enough to absorb 
the oil. There is danger of oiling a harness too much. When 
the leather appears so thoroughly saturated with oil that the 
oleaginous substance oozes from the pores, and absorbs dust 
that may be floating in the atmosphere, the leather does not 
need oiling. The leather should always be in such a con- 
dition, when oiled, that it will absorb the oil and leave a clean 
surface. 

When a harness is to be oiled, take it in a clean and warm 
room in cold weather, or on a few clean boards out of doors in 
warm weather ; unbuckle all the parts, and wash the surface 
clean with strong soapsuds. Wherever there may be a coating 
of gum, if soapsuds will not remove it readily, dip a coarse rag 
in spirits of turpentine and rub the surface rapidly. A little 
turpentine or benzine will remove a heavy coating of gum 
readily; but if applied in such quantity as to soak into the 
leather it will injure it. Before the oil is applied, the leather 
should be warmed through and through. As soon as the har- 
ness appears dry on the surface, and before the leather has 
become as dry as tinder to the middle, apply 1?he oil. Traces, 
and some other parts of a harness which are exposed to wet 
and mud, are not liable to have too much oil applied to them. 

Neatsf oot-oil is preferable to any other, as it wiH keep the 
leather soft. We once knew a farmer who, not understanding 
that linseed-oil when laid on leather would render it hard and 
stiff, applied a coat of it to his carriage harness, which made 
the leather so stiff and hard that the surface would crack 
badly whenever the pieces were l^ent. 

When the oil is about to be applied, lay a piece of harness 
on a biench or smooth board, and use a paint-brush or swab to 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 81 

lay on the oil. Let the oil be kept in a large milkpan, so that 
all small pieces like lines and straps may be dipped in the oil 
and drawn slowly through it. With the thumb and fingers 
slip the oil back on the straps, and let it drop into the pan. 
By using a large pan, one can oil a harness in a few minutes 
in a neat and thorough manner, without wasting any oil. 

The government harness dressing is said to be prepared as 
foUow^s: One gallon of neatsfoot-oil, two pounds of bayberry 
tallow, two pounds beeswax, two pounds of beef tallow. Put 
the above in a pan over a moderate fire. When thoroughly 
dissolved add two quarts of castor-oil; then, while on the fire, 
stir in one ounce of lampblack. Mix well, and strain through 
a fine cloth to remove sediment; let cool. 

A composition which not only softens the harness but 
blackens it at the same time, is made as follows: Put into a 
glazed pipkin 2 ozs. of black resin; place it on a gentle fire; 
when melted, add 3 ozs. of beeswax. When this is melted, 
take it from the fire, add ^ oz. of lampblack and i dr. of Prus- 
sian blue in fine powder. Stir tliem so as to be perfectly 
mixed, and add sufficient spirits of turpentine to form a thin 
paste; let it cool. To use it, apply a thin coat with a piece 
of linen rag pretty evenly all over the harness; then take a 
soft polishing-brush and brush it over, so as to obtain a bright 
surface. 

Icehouses. — An icehouse of some kind or another is indis- 
pensable to every country-house where ice is not delivered by 
the regular dealers, or whr^re it can not be obtained when 
wanted. 

There should be no regular floor to an icehouse, — a sand or 
loam floor being the best, with a layer of sawdust or planer 
shavings four or five inches deep, makes an excellent founda- 
tion for the ice to rest on; and it is not a bad idea to sprinkle 
a thin layer of sawdust between every layer of ice as it is being 
packed away. • 

The size of an icehouse will depend somewhat on the number 
of persons who will have to be supplied from it ; but as a rule, 



82 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

when the members of a family do not exceed eight, a building 
10 by 14 feet, and 10 feet high at the plates, will contain quite 
sufficient for all household and dairy purposes. If possible, 
build the house on a slightly elevated spot, and have a drain 
made from one of its sides leading down to some layer drain- 
ing a lower ground. Where convenient, lay a couple of tiers 
of brick or stone (the latter is to be preferred) for a sort of 
foundation. See that this brick or stone work is level all round, 
and in a fit condition to receive the ends of the studding. Cut 
the studding for the two sides to the proper length, and enough 
of them to stand about three feet apart. The studs for the 
ends may be left uncut, and stood up in their places. A door- 
way, 4 feet wide, should be left in one end, and the bottom of 
the door should be at least 3 feet up from the ground. A door 
4 by 5 feet will be quite large enough, and it should be hung 
so as to swing on the outside. Nail good hemlock boards on 
the inside of the studding, keeping the lower edge of the first 
board close down to the brick or stone work. See that the 
joints of the ends of the boards are *' broken," — that is, have 
no two but-joints come on the same stud unless there is one 
or more boards between the joints. Board the inside walls 
around the four sides to the height of the side-studs, and then 
board the outside in the same way. When this is done, put on 
the roof, which may be formed of two tiers of sound boards, 
or it may be made of shingles and boards together, which may 
be of an inferior quality. Some people insist on filling in be- 
tween the boarding of the walls with sawdust, tanbark, or 
other like materials, but this is not at all necessary, as the air 
confined between the walls acts as a much better protection 
than any of the materials named, and the filling is apt to rot 
the siding. 

After the house has been well boarded up, strips of pine 
about two inches wide should be nailed up and down over the 
studs on the outside boarding, and common siding or weather 
boarding should be nailed on these strips, thus inclosing the 
building a third time. This operation leaves an air-space 



THE WORESSOP COMPANION. 83 

betweeii tlie siding and the boarding of about one inch, which 
adds greatly to the effectiveness of tuO building for preserving 
icdj This would give a thickness to the walls of about eiglit 
iuches, which is made up as follows: weather boarding, one 
inch; air-space, one inch; hemlock boarding, one inch; air- 
space between boarding, four inches; inside boarding, one 
inch. The studs used in the building are intended in the fore* 
going description to be 2 by 4; but when expense is not so 
much of an object, 2 by 6 may be employed. Double doors— 
that is, a door on the outside and one on the inside — would 
make the house much more effective than if only one door was 
used. A ventilation must be made through the roof similar to 
a chimney: this may be ornamented to suit the taste. 

If a permanent icehouse of a more expensive nature is re- 
quired, then stone or brick may be employed for the outer 
walls, and a slate or shingle roof may be put on it; but when 
brick or stone is used there should be a board wall inside all 
round, with an air-space of three or four inches between it and 
the stone wall. An icehouse should never have windows in it, 
as the admission of light is objectionable. The floor, in the 
case of a stone or brick house, should be made of concrete or 
cement, and should be lower in the center and at one end, so 
as to permit the water to flow to the drain, — w;hich, of course, 
would have to be provided in any case. 

A wooden icehouse may be made to look quite ornamental 
and pleasing, if properly bviilt and sicel^y painted ; and if cedar 
or chestnut is used for sills, it will last for thirty or forty 
.years. 

And now a word about packing ice. The first thing neces- 
sary is to place a layer of sawdust, spent tanbark, or straw, on 
the floor or ground, to a thickness of three or four inches, and 
on this place the ice, which will be cut in square blocks. 
Keep the ice as solid and compact as possible, and leave a 
space of about four inches between the ice and the boarding; 
and, as the blocks are built up solid fill this space with saw- 
dust. Fill up all the chinks and openings between the blocks 



84 THE WORKSHOP COMI>AN10N, 

with small pieces of ice, or pack them solid with sawdugti 
Everything depends on keeping the air out from between the 
blocks. When the house is filled^ ot as much is packed in as 
is intended, the whole should be cover^^d With a coating of 
sawdust not less than two feet deep. When any of the ice is 
removed for use, or for other reasons, the part exposed by the 
removal should be carefully covered again. 

Care should be taken of the sawdust, as it may be used for 
many years. Pine sawdust is the best. 

After the house is filled and properly closed up — or, in other 
words, when the ice is ^^ harvested," — the earth should be 
banked up against the building all round, so as to prevent any 
air from getting under the sill or into the building at any 
point. 

Lights, Night. — The convenience of having at command a 
small light which will burn all night and give sufficient light 
to enable the watcher to perform the usual offices of the sick- 
room has led to numerous inventions having this end in view. 
One of the oldest was that known as the aUniglit^v^hieh was 
simply a cake of wax with a slender wick in the center. This 
was the prototype of the modern mortar, which is merely a 
very thick dumpy candle with a very slender wick. 

In providing a light to burn all night in the sick-room great 
care should be taken to avoid everything that can injure the 
air of the apartment. For this reason no volatile combustible, 
such as kerosene, naphtha, or any similar burning fluid should 
ever be used : they are* sure to give off vapors which make the 
air offensive and dangerous. It is a common practice to use a 
small kerosene-lamp turned down low. Any person coming 
out of tbe fresh air into a room where such a lamp has been 
burning for some hours, can not fail to notice its injurious 
effect upon the air; and we can readily imagine wliat the 
result must be when the delicate lungs of a sick person are 
forced to breathe such an atmosphere. 

When gas can be had it forms one of the most convenient 
jsources of illumination ; but a special burner should be used, 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 85 

— one which allows very little gas to pass. If we use an 
ordinary burner and attempt to regulate the flame by the stop- 
cock, much gas will be wasted, and some of it will escape into 
the room unburned. 

One of the best devices is the old ''perpetual lamp," as it 
was called. This consists of a small cup about three quarters 
of an inch in diameter and made of very thin metal, through 
the center of which is passed a tube about the sixteenth of an 
inch in diameter. The tube does not rise in the cup quite to 
the level of the edge^ and by means of a few grains of shot it 
is easy to sink the cup so that the upper end of the tube will 
be about the level of the liquid in which the cup is made to 
float. This liquid is any kind of fixed oil — olive, lard, cotton- 
seed, sperm, etc. It is easy to ignite the oil at the upper end 
of the tube, when it will continue to burn steadily, and will 
give a clear and bright but small light for a whole night. 

The oil is best held in a g>.ss tumbler, the sides of which 
allow the light to pass through. 

We hav^ often made these night-lamps out of half the shell 
of an English walnut and a common glass ''bugle," suck as is 
used by ladies for trimming some parts of their dress. In the 
bottom of the shell bore a hole that will just admit the bugle, 
and fasten the latter in place with a little sealing-wax. Then 
float the shell in oil, sinking it with fine shot until the oil rises 
to the upper end of the bugle. As the oil rises considerably 
by capillary attraction, the top of the bugle will be above the 
general level of the outside oil by an amount which will de- 
'pend upon the diameter of the tube. Then hold the flame of 
a match or well-folded slip of paper over the top of the tube 
until the oil ignites, when it will continue to burn with a clear 
steady light until the oil is all gone. Those who prefer (o 
use tallow or solid paraffine can easily keep these substances 
melted by causing the flame to heat a stout copper wire, which 
may be bent so as to pass down into the combustible. 

Such lights are easily covered, so as to make the room quit^ 
^ark, hj means of an old bandbox or batbox, 



86 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

Magic Lantern Pictures. — For all the better class of pict- 
ures nothing can equal good photographs on glass; and now 
that amateur photographic apparatus has come into such gen- 
eral use, the use of the magic lantern, both for amusement and 
instruction, will no doubt be greatly extended. The photo- 
graphs may be readily colored with aniline colors, which may 
be obtained of almost any shade, and which are perfectly 
transparent. 

A simple method of forming perfectly accurate outline pict- 
ures (such as diagrams, etc.) is as follows: — 

A sheet of gelatine, such as is used for tracing, is securely 
fixed over an engraving, and with a sharp steel point (a stout 
needle fixed in a wooden handle answers well) the lines of the 
original are traced pretty deeply on the transparent substance. 
Lead-pencil or crayon-dust is then lightly rubbed in with the 
finger, and the picture is at once ready for use. The effect of 
these drawings in the lantern is said to be excellent. 

Illustrations for common lanterns are easily made by taking 
ordinary engravings on very thin paper and mounting them 
with Canada balsam between two plates of glass. The balsam 
renders the paper quite transparent, and the engraving may 
be colored before being mounted. The paper on which the 
engraving is printed must be thin, and if there should be any 
printing on tlie back of the engraving the paper must be split 
by the usual well-known means. 

Methylated Spirit. — This liquid is frequently named in 
English recipes, and sometimes puzzles the American reader. 
Wherever methylated spirit is to be used, alcohol of 95 p. c. 
may be substituted for it. The term is applied in England to 
alcohol to which one tenth of its volume of wood naphtha 
(strength not less than 60 degrees o. p.) has been added, the 
object of such addition being that of rendering the mixture 
undrinkable through its offensive odor and taste. The purifica- 
tion of this mixed spirit, or the separation of the two alcohols, 
though often attempted, has always proved a failure commer- 
^mWj, It might be supposed that; owing to the Jow bpiliBg'' 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 87 

point of methylie alcohol, simple distillation would effect this ; 
but experience has shown that both spirits distil over simulta- 
neously. This is, no doubt, due to the difference of their vapor 
densities. 

Methylated spirit, being sold duty free, can be employed by 
the chemical manufacturer as a solvent in many processes for 
which, from its greater cost, duty-paid spirit would be com- 
mercially inapplicable. But in the preparation of medicines 
containing spirit as the vehicle or menstruum by which more 
active substances are administered, the employment of methy- 
lated spirit is highly improper. The Council of the Pharma- 
ceutical Society obtained from the Pharmacopoeia Committee 
of the Medical Council the decided opinion that *Hhe substi- 
tution of 'methylated^ for 'rectified^ spirit in any of the pro- 
cesses of tlie Pharmacopoeia should be strictly prohibited," 
and in Great Britain the use of methylated spirit in the prep- 
aration of tinctures, sweet spirits of nitre, common ether, or 
any medicine to be used internally, is now prohibited by law. 

The steady refusal of our American legislators to permit the 
use of methylated or some similar form of alcohol in the arts, 
duty free, is but one illustration out of thousands of the man- 
ner in which true progress is obstructed by mere politicians. 

Moire Metallique. — This method of ornamenting tin goods 
was at one time very fashionable ; but like many other good 
things it has fallen somewhat into disfavor, probably owing 
to the *'cheap" look given by inferior work. The process 
consists in various methods of bringing out or displaying the 
crystalline character of tin. This is effected by first obtaining 
a good crystallization, and then dissolving, by means of suit- 
able acids, that portion of the metal which has not been crys- 
tallized and which seems to have less power of resisting acids 
than the crystals. The surface may afterwards be varnished 
or lacquered with plain or colored lacquer, and very beautiful 
effects produced. 

The following is the original process of M. Baget: — 

4fter cleansing away every extraneous matter, as dirt or 



88 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

grease, with warm soapy water, rinse the tin in clean water. 
Then, after drying it, give it a heat to the temperature of bare 
sufferance to the hand, and expose it to the vapor of any acid 
that acts upon tin, or the acid itself may be poured on or laid 
on with a brush, the granulated crystallization varying accord- 
ing to the strength of the wash and the heat of your plates. 
Hence, it must be perceived, whatever quantity is required for 
any particular job of work should be made all at one time, — 
no two makings coming away alike, but depending entirely 
upon accident. 

Wash 1. — Take 1 part by measure of sulphuric acid, and 
dilute it with five times as much water. 

Wash 2. — Take of nitric acid and water equal quantities, 
and keep the two mixtures separate. Then, take of the first 
10 parts, and 1 part of the second. Mix, and apply the same 
with a pencil or sponge to the surface of the heated tin, re- 
peating the same several times, until the material acted upon 
loses its heat, or you may be satisfied with the appearance of 
your work. A transparent varnish is now to be laid on, much 
whereof will be absorbed, and will of course be affected by 
any coloring matters you may mix with it. These, however, 
should not be opaque colors ; and a good polish being given to 
the work produces that enviably brilliant material we find so 
much in use. 

Another formula which is said to give excellent results is as 
follows : — 

The plate-iron to be tinned is dipped into a tin bath com- 
posed of 200 parts of pure tin, 3 parts of copper, and 1 part of 
arsenic. Thus tinned, the sheet-iron is then submitted to the 
seven following operations: — ^ 

1. Immersing in lye of caustic potassa, and washing. 

2. Immersing in aqua regia, and washing. 

3. Immersing in lye of caustic potassa, and washing. 

4. Quickly passing through nitric acid, and washing. 

5. Immersing in lye of caustic potassa, and washing. 
g. Immersing in aqua regia, and washing. 

7. Immersing in lye of caustic potassa, and washing. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 89 

Every time that the sheet-iron is placed in aqua regia the 
oxide of tin thereby produced must be entirely removed, since 
otherwise spots would form. The quickly passing through 
nitric acid softens the unpleasant metallic glare which, at 
certain angles of refraction, renders the design invisible. The 
copal resins deserve the preference for coating the sheet-iron 
after the crystallization has been thus obtained. 

Nails. — It is estimated that there are over 4,000 different 
kinds and sizes of nails in market. Amongst the most impor- 
tant of these are: 1, common cut-nails; 2, finishing-nails, which 
are more slender and have not as large heads as common nails ; 

3, wrought-nails, used when it is necessary to clinch the nail ; 

4, clout-nails, which have broad heads and are used for nailing 
cloth, leather, sheet-iron, etc., to wood; 5, countersunk nails, 
in which the top of the head is flat; 6, billed nails, in which 
the head projects to one side. 

The terms threepenny, sixpenny, etc., as applied to nails, 
arose from the fact that before cut-nails were invented all the 
nails in use were made by hand and sold by count. One hun- 
dred sixpenny nails were sold for sixpence (12^ cents). After- 
ward, when competition had reduced the price, one hundred 
sixpenny nails were sold for a much smaller price. As soon 
as the cut-nails were brought out, the price fell so materially 
that the nails were sold by weight, but the old designations 
were still retained. 

It is sometimes stated that the word '^ penny" is merely a 
corruption of ^^pound," and that ''sixpenny" nails were ''six- 
pound" nails, or six pounds to the 1000. This is mere im- 
agination. 

Bevan determined that a wrought-iron nail, 73 to the pound 
and 2^ inches long, driven into dry elm to the depth of one 
inch across the grain, required a pull of 327 lbs. to extract it ; 
and the same nail driven endwise or longitudinally into the 
same wood was extracted by a force of 257 lbs. The same nail 
driven two inches endwise into hard pine was drawn by a force 
pf 257 ll:>s.; a'^d to draw out one inch took 87 lbs. only, 



90 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

The relative adhesion, therefore, in the same wood, when 
driven transversely or longitudinally, is 100 to 78, or about 
4 to 3 in dry elm ; and 100 to 46, or about 2 to 1, in pine ; and 
in like circumstances, the relative adhesion to elm and pine is 
as 2 or 3 to 1. 

The progressive depths of the same nail driven into hard 
pine by simple pressure were as follows : — 

i inch, by a pressure of 24 ponnds. 

I u u u 76 a 

1 '' '' '' 235 '' 
H '' '' '<• 400 '' 

2 '' '' ^' 610 *' 

To extract the same nail from a depth of one inch out of 

Dry oak required a pull of . . . 507 pounds. 
Dry beech '' ''''.., 667. '' 

Green sycamore *' " . . . 312 ** 

From these experiments we may infer that such i ^ail 
driven two inches into dry oak would require a force of more 
than half a ton to extract it by a steady pull. A common 
screw of one fifth of an inch in diameter was found to have an 
adhesive force of about three times that of a nail 2^ inches 
long and weighing 73 to the pound when both entered the same 
distance into the wood. 

Haupt, in his ''Military Bridges," gives a table of the hold- 
ing power of wrought-iron tenpenny nails, 77 to the pound, 
and about 3 inches long. The nails were driven through a 
one-inch board into a block, and the board was then dragged 
in a direction perpendicular to the length of the nails. Taking 
a pine plank nailed to a pine block with eiglit nails to the 
square foot, the average breaking weight per nail w^as found 
to be 380 pounds. Similar experiments with oak showed the 
breaking weight to be 415 pounds. With 12 nails to the square 
foot the holding power was 542J pounds ; and wdth six nails in 
pine 463i pounds. The highest result obtained was for 12 nails 
to the square foot in pine, the breaking weight being in thi§ 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 91 

case 612 pounds per uail. The average strength decreases with 
the increase of surface. 

Tredgold gives the force in pounds required to extract three- 
penny brads from dry Christiana deal at right angles to the 
grain of the wood as 58 pounds. The force required to draw a 
wrought-iron sixpenny nail was 187 pounds, the length forced 
into the wood being one inch. The relative adhesion when 
driven transversely and longitudinally is in pine about 2 to 1. 
To extract a common sixpenny nail from a depth of one inch 
in dr}' beech, across grain, required 167 pounds; in dry Chris- 
tiana deal, across grain, 187 pounds, and with grain 87 pounds. 
In elm the force required was 327 pounds across grain, and 
257 with grain. In oak the figure given was 507 pounds across 
grain. 

From further experiments it would appear that the holding 
power of spike-nails in fir is from 460 to 730 pounds per inch 
in length, while the adhesive power of screws two inches long, 
0'22 inch in diameter at the exterior of the threads, 12 to the 
inch, driven into lialf-inch board, was 790 pounds in hard wood 
and about half that amount in soft wood. 

The force necessary to break or tear out a half-inch iron pin, 
applied in the manner of a pin to a tenon in the mortice, the 
thickness of the board being 0*87 inch, and the distance of the 
center of the hole from the end of the board 1*05 inch, was 
976 pounds. 

As the strength of the tenon from the pin-hole may be con- 
sidered as in proportion to the distance from 'he end, and also 
to the thickness, we may for this species of wood — dry oak — 
obtain the breaking force in pounds nearly by multiplying 
together one thousand times the distance of the hole from the 
end by the thickness of the tenon in inches. 

These facts will enable us to determine approximately the 
number of nails required for any piece of work. The following 
table, which gives the denomination of the nail, its length, and 
the number contained in a pound, will enable us to complete 
tlia estimate;-- 



92 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 



DENOMINATION OF NAIL, LENGTH, AND NUMBER IN A POUND. 



3- 


-penn 


Yy • 




1 inch, 


. 




557 


nails. 




4 








H 


ii 


, 




. 353 






5 








2 inches, 




232 






6 








3 








167 






7 








2i 








141 






8 








2i 








101 






10 








2i 








68 






12 








3 








54 






20 








3i 








34 






30 








4 








26 






40 








4i 








20 






BOAT-SPIKl 


ss. 








SHIP-SPIKES. 




Length. 




No. to lb. 






Length. 




No. to lb. 


3 iuches, 




. 17-5 






4 inches, . 


, , 


8 


4 '' 




. 12-57 






5 










4-37 


5 '' 




. 7-2 






6 










4-2 


6 '' 




. 4-97 






7 










2-75 


7 '' 




. 3-62 






8 










1-74 


8 '' 




. 2-95 






9 










1-55 


9 '' 




. 21 






10 










1.15 


10 '' 




. 1-98 
















Professor 


W. R 


. Johnson foi 


md 


tha 


t a pL 


iin sp] 


ke 


•375 inch 



square, driven 3f inches into seasoned Jersey yellow pine or 
unseasoned chestnut required a force of about 2,000 lbs. to 
extract it; from seasoned white oak, about 4,000 lbs.; and 
from well-seasoned locust about 6,000 lbs. 

Everyone is familiar with J;he fact that a piece of rusty iron, 
wrapped in cotton or linen cloth, soon destroys the texture of 
the fabric. A rusting nail, for example, if laid upon a few 
rags, will soon produce large holes in them ; or it will, at least, 
render every point that it touches so rotten that the cloth will 
readily fall to pieces at these points, and holes will be pro- 
duced by the slightest hard usage. From this well-known fact 
we may draw the conclusion that iron, during the process 
of rusting, tends to destroy any vegetable fiber with which it 
may be in contact. This explains, to a certain extent, the 
rapid destruction of the wood that surrounds the nails used in 
outdoor work, whereby the nail is soon left in a hole much 
larger than itself, and all power of adhesion is lost. Part of 



THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION. 93 

this effect is, no doubt, due to the action of water and air, 
which creep along the surface of the nail by capillary attrac- 
tion, and tend to produce rottenness in the wood as well as 
oxidation in the iron. But when we compare an old nail-hole 
with a similar hole that has been exposed during an equal 
time, but filled with a wooden pin instead of an iron nail, we 
find that the wood surrounding the wooden pin has suffered 
/east; and v/e may, therefore, fairly attribute a destructive 
action to the rusting of the iron. It might, at first sight, be 
supposed that, as the oxide of iron is more bulky than the pure 
iron, the hole would be filled more tightly and the nail held 
more firmly to its place. But, although this effect is produced 
in the first instance, yet the destruction of the woody fiber and 
the pulverization of the oxide soon overbalance it, and the 
nail becomes loose. Of course, the iron itself being also de- 
stroyed, its strength is diminished; and we have, therefore, a 
double incentive for preventing or diminishing the action that 
we have described. The only way to prevent this action is to 
cover the nail with some substance that will prevent oxidation. 
This might be done by tinning, as is common with carpet-tacks, 
which are now extensively tinned for the purpose of prevent- 
ing them from rusting, and thus rotting holes in the carpets. 
Coating them with oil or tallow would be efficient, if the act 
of driving did not remove the protecting matter entirely from 
a large portion of the surface. But, even then, it will be found 
that the oil or fat is stripped off the point and gathered about 
the head in such a way as to prevent the entrance of air and 
moisture into the hole. ^ 

The most efficient way to coat nails wiA grease is to heat 
them to a point sufficient to cause the grease to smohe, and 
then pour the grease over them, stirring them about in a pot 
or other vessel. When the nails are hot, the melted grease 
will attach itself to them more firmly than it would have done 
if they were cold. Indeed, so firmly that it will require actual 
abrasion of the metal to separate it. In erecting fences, 
laying plank or board sidewalks and the like, it becomes an 



94 THE WOBKSHOP COMPANION, 

Itnportant matter to secure the nails against the influence that 
we have mentioned, and yet the work must be done rapidly 
and cheaply. Nails may D© readily prepared as described, or 
they may simply be dipped in oil or paint at the moment when 
they are driven in. And we have found, by experience, that 
in cases where it is not advisable to paint the whole fence, it 
is, nevertheless, a good plan to go over the work and touch the 
liead of every nail with a brush dipped in oil or paint prepared 
so as to be of the same color as old wood. 

Nine Oils. — Eeaders of Dickens can not fail to remember 
the bottle of '^Nine Oils'^ which Sissy Jupe got for her father, 
and kept so long waiting for his return. This favorite old 
remedy has disappeared from modern pharmacopoeias, and few 
druggists know what it is. The following is the old recipe for 
compounding it: — 

Train-oil 1 gallon, oil of turpentine 1 quart, oil of brick and 
amber, each 5 ozs.; camphorated spirits of wine, 10 ozs.; Bar- 
badoes tar, 2^ lbs.; oil of vitriol, 1 oz. 

It used to be a favorite remedy with farriers, and also with 
workmen who were much exposed to bruises, etc. 

Oil of Brick. — This ingredient is frequently named in old 
prescriptions and recipes. It is simply olive-oil, into which is 
thrown a few pieces of porous brick, made red-hot. The vessel 
is immediately covered over witli a still or alembic head, and 
fire being put beneath, the oil is distilled. The product was 
supposed to possess very peculiar and valuable properties. 
It is extremely limpid, almost like water, is colorless, and does 
not dry up readily nor clog when drying, nor is it fat and greasy 
like the fixed oils. It is used in several quack medidiies; and 
in mechanics is employed by the lapidary as a vehicle to hold 
the diamond-dust which he is in the habit of using. 

Factitious Oil of Brick. — An article very different from that 
just described, but which is generally sold in the shops for oil 
of brick, is composed of linseed-oil, 1 lb.; spirits of turpentine, 
8 ozs.; oil of hartshorn, 1 oz.; Barbadoes tar, 1 oz. Mix to- 
gether with ai(l of heat. This is useless for any purpose in the 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 95 

arts, but is sometimes employed as an embrocation in gout, 
rheumatism, palsy, etc. 

During the days of oil-gas there was found in the vessels in 
which the oil was compressed for use in portable gas-lamps an 
oil known as ^* oil-gas oil/^ One thousand cubic feet of oil-gas 
yielded by compression nearly a gallon of this oil, which was 
used for dissolving india-rubber and for various purposes in 
the arts. Gray says that it is the best rubber solvent known, 
and that in the making of many varnishes which are required 
to dry quickly it is invaluable. It is entirely unknown now in 
the arts, but it is probable that it owed all its good properties 
to benzole (not the liquid commonly known as benzine). 

Paint, Luminous. — The first of those phosjjhoi'i which gave 
rise to what we now call luminous paint was that known as 
Bolognian stone. It was discovered by Vincenzio Cascariola, 
a shoemaker of Bologna, about the year 1630. This man hav- 
ing found near Monte Paterno a very heavy shining substance 
(sulphate of barj^tes or heavy spar) supposed that it must con- 
tain silver, and he consequently exposed it to heat, in the hope 
of extracting that metal. He failed to get any silver, but he 
found that whenever the mineral, after being heated and ex- 
posed to strong sunlight, was placed in a dark room, it con- 
tinued to emit faint rays of light for some hours afterwards. 
In consequence of this interesting discovery the Bolognian 
spar came into considerable demand among natural philos- 
ophers and the curious in general, so that the best method of 
preparing it became an object of even some pecuniary impor- 
tance ; for, as the reader must remember, this was long before 
the day of lucifer matches. The family of Zagoni were the 
most successful in this pursuit; and in consequence furnished 
large quantities of Bolognian phosphorus to all parts of Europe, 
till the subsequent discovery of more powerful phosphori put 
an end to their monopoly. 

The best method of preparing the mineral is first to heat it 
to ignition; then finely powder it, and make it into a paste 
with mucilage. This paste is to be divided into pieces about a 



96 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

quarter of an inch thick, which are then dried in a moderate 
heat and afterwards carefully calcmad at a red heat. Some 
management is requisite in conducting the calcination that it 
may be neither too much nor too little, by either of which 
faults the luminous quality is very materially injured. 

At present the sulphide of calcium is preferred to any other 
substance, — a paint made according to the following formula 
giving excellent results: — 

Take oyster-shells and clean them with warm water; put 
them into the fire for half an hour ; at the end of that time 
take them out and let them cool. When quite cool pound 
them fine, and take away any gray parts, as they are of no use. 
Put the powder in a crucible in alternate layers with flowers 
of sulphur. Put on the lid and cement with sand made into a 
stiff paste with beer. When dry put over the fire and bake for 
an hour. Wait until quite cold before opening the lid. The 
product ought to be white. You must separate all gray parts, 
as they are not luminous. Make a sifter in the following 
manner: Take a pot, put a piece of very fine muslin very 
loosely across it, tie around with a string, put the powder into 
the top, and rake about until only the coarse powder remains. 
Open the pot and you will find a very small powder. Mix it 
into a thin paint with gum-water, as two thin applications are 
better than one thick one. This will give a paint that will 
remain luminous far into the night, provided it is exposed to 
the light daring the day. 

Luminous Enamel. — Five parts of the ordinary luminous 
powder prepared from oyster-shells as previously directed; 
ten of fluor-spar, cryolite, or other similar fluoride; one of 
barium borate; powdered, mixed, made into a cream with 
water, painted on the glass or stone article, dried, and fired 
in the usual way for enamels. If the article contains an oxide 
of iron, lead, or other metal, it must be first glazed with ground 
felspar, silica, lime phosphate, or clay, to keep the sulphur of 
the sulphide from combining with the metal. The result is an 
enameled luminous article. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 97 

Luminous Paper.— Take 50 parts of luminous powder, pre- 
pared as previously directed, 4 parts bichromate of potash, 
and 4 of gelatine. These are to be thoroughly dried, and 
mixed by grinding. One part of the resulting powder is stirred 
with 2 parts of boiling water to a thickly fluid paint, one or 
two coats of which are applied with a brush to the paper or 
pasteboard to be made luminous. To avoid inequality in the 
thickness of the layer of paint the paper is passed through a 
sort of calender with rolls at a proper distance to insure a 
uniform spreading of the luminous mass. The rolls may be 
heated, if desired. 

Paint for Iron Exposed to the Weather.— The late John 
C. Trautwine, who was one of our most experienced engineers, 
tells us that the best paints for preserving iron exposed to the 
weather, slts prepared from the pulverized oxides of iron, such 
as yellow ai:d red iron ochers, or brown hematite iron ores 
finely ground, and simply mixed with linseed-oil and a dryer. 
White lead, applied directly, requires incessant renewal; and, 
indeed, probably exerts a corrosive effect. It may, however, 
be applied over the more durable colors where appearance 
requires it. Red lead is said to be very durable when pure. 
An instance is recorded of pump-rods in a well 200 feet deep, 
near London, England, which having first been thus painted, 
were in use forty-five years, and at the expiration of that time 
their weight was found to be precisely the same as when new, 
showing that rust had not affected them. When the size of 
the exposed iron admits of it, Faraday suggests that its free- 
dom from rusting may be promoted to a large extent by first 
heating it thoroughly, and then dipping it into or washing it 
with linseed-oil, which will then penetrate slightly into the 
iron. For tinned iron exposed to the weather on roofs, rain- 
pipes, etc., Spanish brown is a very durable color. The tin is 
frequently found perfectly bright and protected where this 
color has been used, after an exposure of forty or fifty years. 
Paint containing much white lead generally washes off in a 
few years by the action of rain. 



98 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

Where the article is exposed to mechanical action, however, 
the addition of red lead generally improves the paint : and in 
some cases, such as carriage-irons, pure red lead is decidedly 
the best for a first coat. It may, w^hen dry, be painted over 
and concealed by any other color. To secure the best results 
the red lead must be selected with great care, and mixed and 
applied properly. Pure red lead powder, after being slightly 
pressed down with the finger, shows no lead crystals. When 
they are visible it is merely partly converted, and not first 
quality. It should be ground in pure old linseed-oil, and if 
possible used up the same day to prevent it combining with 
the oil before it is applied, losing in quality. No drier is 
necessary, as in the course of a few days the oil forms a per- 
fectly hard combination with the lead. American linseed-oil is 
as good as any imported, where the manufacturer has given it 
age, and not subjected it to heat, as is the custom, by steaming 
it in a cistern to qualify it quickly for the market. It dete- 
riorates in quality when heated above 100 deg. Fah. This red 
lead paint spreads very easily over a surface, and the best of 
finish can be made with it, even by a novice in painting. 

Painters' Cream. — This is a mixture used by painters to 
cover their w^ork when they are obliged to leave it for some 
time. It may be washed off with a sponge and water, so as to 
leave the painting in the exact state in which it was when 
work was suspended. It is composed of pale nut-oil, 6 ozs.; 
mastic, 1 oz.; sugar of lead, previously ground in the least 
possible quantity of oil, i oz. Dissolve the mastic in the nut- 
oil, add the sugar of lead, and then add water, beating the 
mixture all the time until it looks like cream. 

Another recipe is as follows: Take of very clear nut-oil 3 oz.; 
mastic in tears, pulverized, i oz.; sal saturni, in powder (ace- 
tate of lead, i oz. Dissolve the mastic in oil over a gentle fire, 
and pour the mixture into a marble mortar, over the pounded 
salt of lead; stir it with a wooden pestle, and add water in 
small quantities, till the matter assumes the appearance and 
consistence of cream, and refuses to admit more water. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 99 

Paintings, Repairing.— In Europe the art of repairing and 
revarnishing, or, as it is called, "restoring" pictures, is quite 
ri business; and as this country grows, the business will no 
doubt become more general and lucrative. In its best phases 
the art of restoring pictures demands great skill and special 
taste ; but there are certain cases which may be met by mere 
routine system. Some of the ablest scientific men have de- 
voted their attention to the improvement of the methods in 
actual use; and many of their suggestions are well worthy of 
attention by the practical man. 

Valuable paintings should be kept in a dry place, and one 
free from foul air. Dampness soon destroys the canvas or 
wood upon which the picture maybe painted; and the foul 
emanations from stables, sinks, graveyards, etc., soon destroy 
the finer colors, owing to the action of the sulphuretted hydro- 
gen and carbonic acid. Hence churches, vaults, stables, and 
similar places, are entirely unfit for storing paintings. 

The darkening of the lights in oil paintings may be quickly 
changed by the application of the solution of peroxide of hy- 
drogen, — a compound which is now found in market under the 
name of ''Golden Bleaching Liquid." Under the action of this 
liquid the sulphides are at once converted into sulphates. 

Paintings which have been injured may often be restored 
by the exercise of a little skill. In such cases the following 
directions will prove useful. 

When by the continued pressure of some hard body the 
canvas presents either a concavity or convexity in a portion 
of its surface, it must be well wet in that part, and left grad- 
ually to dry in some cool place, keeping it constantly under 
pressure. 

To make the colors adhere when Mistered, etc. — When the color 
has separated from the priming, whilst the priming still re- 
mains firm, the swollen and detached part is first rubbed over 
with the same paste which will be presently mentioned as used 
for lining. Then, with a pin or needle, little holes are punc- 
tured in the part, and more paste rubbed over these holes with 



133 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

d pencil, and worked about so that it sball pass through thenj, 
The surface is then wiped clean, and over the spot a pencil is 
passed that has been dipped into linseed-oil. This serves to 
soften it. A warm iron is then passed rapidly over the raised 
surface, which attaches itself to the priming as before. Should 
it be necessary to line the canvas with a new one, it should be 
done previously. 

When a canvas is broken, rent, or perforated in any part, 
the piece of canvas that is used to repair the damage is dipped 
into melted wax, and applied the moment it is taken out, 
warm as it is, to the part, which has been previously brought 
together as well as possible, and also saturated with the wax. 
With great care you flatten down the piece; so that as the 
wax chills and concretes, the parts adhere and are kept smooth. 
The whole being made perfectly level, and the excess of the 
wax removed, a mastic made of white lead mixed with starch 
is applied; for oil-color does not adhere well to wax. The 
white is afterwards colored thin, or by washes, according to 
the tone of the surrounding parts, and repainted. 

When the priming of a canvas has become detached, or the 
cloth is so old as to need sustaining, it is customary to line 
the picture. But if the canvas is greatly injured, the painting 
itself is transferred to a new snbjectile. In order to render 
the old canvas and the color softer and more manageable, 
expose the picture for several days to damp- When all is 
ready, the first step is to fasten, by a thin flour-paste, white 
paper over the whole painted side of the picture, to prevent 
the colors scaling off. Having a new canvafe duly stretched 
on a strong frame, a uniform coat of well-boiled paste, made 
of rye-flour with a clove of garlic, is spread niceh^ over it by 
means of a large brush. With dispatch, yet care, a coat of the 
same paste is spread likewise on the back of the picture. The 
latter is then laid upon the new clotli, the two pasted sides of 
course together. With a ball of linen the usual rubbing is 
given with a strong hand, beginning at the center, and passing 
to the edges, which must be carefully kept in place the while, 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. K 1 

In this way the air is expelled, which remaining would cause 
blisters. 

Tlie picture thus lined is then placed upon a smooth table, 
the painted side down, and the back of the new canvas is 
rubbed over boldly with any suitable smoothing instrument, 
such as is used for linen, paper, or the like ; and a warm iron 
is then passed over the picture, having on the other side a 
board to resist the pressure. The paste being heated by this 
iron, penetrates on the side of the picture, and fixes still more 
firmly the painting, while on the other side the redundant part 
of the paste escapes through the tissue of the new cloth, so 
that there remains everywhere an equal thickness. The iron 
must not be too hot; and before applying it several sheets 
of paper should be interposed between it and the paper that 
was at first pasted on the painting, and which would not be 
sufficient. 

When the lined picture is sufficiently dry the paper last 
mentioned is damped, by passing over it a sponge moistened 
with tepid water. It soon detaches, and with it is removed 
the paste that secured it to the picture. All that remains is to 
clean the painting, and where needed to restore it. 

The above operation will not, of course, be attempted by the 
amateur, except for experiment upon some picture of little 
worth; for even practised hands frequently injure w^h at they 
were employed to preserve. 

Pith for Cleaning. — Kemlo says the stalk of the common 
mullein affords the best pith for cleaning watch-pinions. It 
may be found in old fields and by-places all over the country. 
Winter, when the stalk is dry, is the best time to gather it. 
Elder-pith is good, and is easily obtained. 

Plaster Casts. — The methods of making ordinary plaster 
casts are well known; but there are a few special methods of 
treating this substance which it may be well to describe. The 
material er:ployed is plaster of Paris, which is obtained by 
exposing the purer varieties of gypsum or alabaster to a heat 
a little above that of boiling water, when it becomes a fine, 



102 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

white dry powder. Sometimes the gypsum is first reduced to 
a fine powder and then heated in iron pans; and in this case 
the operation is sometimes called "boiling" plaster, because 
the escape of the water, with which crystalline gypsum is 
always combined, gives to the fine powder the appearance of 
boiling. Plaster of Paris, after being boiled, rapidly dete- 
riorates when exposed to the air; consequently when plaster 
is required for making cements or for other purposes for which 
a good article is needed, care must be taken to secure that 
which is good and freshly boiled. The Italian image-makers 
always use a superior quality of plaster, and it may generally 
be obtained from them in small quantity. 

The employment of gypsum in casting, and in all cases where 
impressions are required, is very extensive. A thin pulp of 
1 part gypsum and 2\ parts water is made. This pulp hardens 
by standing. The hardening of good well-burnt gypsum is 
effected in one or two minutes, and more quickly in a moderate 
heat. Models are made in this substance for galvano-plastic 
purposes, for metallic castings, and for ground-works in porce- 
lain manufacture. The object from which the cast is to be 
taken is first well oiled to prevent the adhesion of the gypsum. 

Casts are frequently taken from living objects; and a cast 
of the human face is often taken for the purpose of preserving 
the likeness of a person. The art is easily acquired, and only 
demands a little care. Let the person, a mold of whose face 
is to be taken, lay down upon his back; let the hair be tied 
back, or otherwise kept back by grease, or by flour-dougli 
placed on it ; grease the eyebrows, and, if necessary, the beard 
and whiskers ; also anoint the rest of the face with sweet oil. 
Then place a quill in each nostril, keeping it there with dough. 
Tie a towel round the face, and make it fit tight with dough 
also. The patient being thus prepared, mix up the required 
quantity of plaster of Paris with warm water, and just as it is 
ready to set pour it upon the face, taking care that the eyes 
and mouth are closed, and the outer ends of the quills above 
the plaster. Use a pallet-knife to spread the plaster evenly 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 103 

over all parts of the face, until a coat is formed half an inch 
or more in thickness. In about two minutes it will set suffi- 
ciently hard to be removed. When dry and well greased, a 
east in plaster may be taken from the mold, or, if wetted, a 
cast in wax may be taken with equal facility. A little warm 
water will remove the dough, etc., from the face. In this 
manner casts are often taken of tumors and skin diseases, the 
wax casts being afterwards colored. For wax casts a good 
composition is white wax 1 lb.; turpentine in lumps 2 ozs.; 
flake white 2 ozs.; and vermillion to color the whole. 

There are several methods of hardening gypsum. One of 
the oldest consists in mixing the burnt gypsum with lime-water 
or a solution of gum-arabic. Another, yielding very good 
results, is to mix the gypsum with a solution of 20 ounces of 
alum in 6 pounds of water. This plaster hardens completely 
in 15 to 30 minutes, and is largely used under the name of 
marble cement. Parian cement is gypsum hardened by means 
of borax, — 1 part borax being dissolved in 9 parts of water, 
and the gj^psum treated with the solution. Still better results 
are obtained by the addition to this solution of 1 part of cream 
of tartar. 

The hardening of gypsum with a water-glass solution is 
found difficult, and no better results are obtained than with 
ordinary gypsum. Fissot obtains artificial stone from gypsum 
by burning and immersions in water, first for half a minute, 
after which it is exposed to the air again for two to three 
minutes, when the block appears as a hardened stone. It 
would seem from this method that the augmentation in hard- 
ness is due to a new crystallization. Hardened gypsum, treated 
with stearic acid or with paraffine, and polished, much resem- 
bles meerschaum: the resemblance may be increased by a col- 
oring solution of gamboge and dragon^s blood, to impart a 
faint red-yellow tint. The cheap artificial meerschaum pipes 
are manufactured by this method. 

Plaster of Paris treated with paraffine maybe readily cut and 
turned in the lathe, and forms a very pleasant material tq worfe, 



104 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

When plaster is used for architectural purposes and greater 
hardness is required, a small quantity of lime is added. This 
addition gives a very marble-like appearance, and the mixture 
is much employed in architecture, being then known as 
gypsum-marble or stucco. The gypsum is generally mixed 
with lime-water, to which sometimes a solution of sulphate of 
zinc is added. After drying, the surface is rubbed down with 
pumice-stone, colored to represent marble, and polished with 
Tripoli and olive-oil. Artificial scagliola work is largely com- 
posed of gypsum. 

Ordinary casts may be rendered very hard and tough by 
soaking them in glue size until thoroughly saturated, and 
allowing them to dry. 

Casts of plaster of Paris may be made to imitate fine bronze 
by giving them two or three coats of shellac varnish, and when 
dry applying a coat of mastic varnish, and dusting on fine 
bronze-powder when the mastic varnish becomes sticky. 

Rat-holes may be effectually stopped with broken glass and 
plaster of Paris. 

Porcelain Finish. — White paint, suitable for reflectors, may 
be made by mixing dry white zinc carbonate with silicate of 
potash liquid. After each coat artificial heat should be em- 
ployed to hasten the drying. 

Putty. — The term j^utty is applied to three very different 
articles. The mason or plasterer gives this name to a finely 
divided and smooth paste of slaked lime, used for filling cracks, 
finishing off delicate parts of the work, and similar purposes. 
The term is also applied to the oxide of tin, so extensively 
used as a polishing powder by opticians, and fully described 
in the article on '* Polishing Powders" in Part I. In general, 
however, when ** putty" is spoken of the article known as 
glazier's putty is meant. It is used for setting glass in windows, 
for filling cracks and nail-holes, and other purposes. 

The best is made of raw linseed-oil and whiting, the latter 
being simply chalk ground in a mill like flour. It comes out 
with a fine flint grit in it. Before making putty of it, a few 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 105 

old-fashioned men, who believe in making the best of every- 
thing, wash the grit out. The fine flour is then dried. If it is 
not dried perfectly it takes up more oil than is desirable or 
profitable. From 500 to 600 pounds — about 15 per cent, by 
weight, of raw oil to 85 per cent of whiting — are put in a 
chaser and thoroughly mixed. The chaser is an annular 
trough, ten feet in diameter. From a vertical shaft in the 
center two arms extend, on the ends of which are heavy iron 
wheels that rest in the trough. When the shaft revolves the 
wheels chase each other around the trough. When mixed, it 
is packed in bladders for convenience in handling. 

The adulteration of putty is effected by mixing marble-dust 
with whiting. It costs about a quarter of a cent a pound, and 
whiting costs twice that. Paraffine oils, at from 20 to 30 cents 
a gallon, are used instead of linseed-oil at 60 cents. The 
marble-dust makes the putty gritty, and the cheap oil makes 
it sticky. 

A superior article of putty is made, however, by the further 
addition of white lead in oil, Japan varnish, and a small quan- 
tity of turpentine, which makes a hard cement that does not 
shrink, and when dry can be rubbed down with pumice-stone 
or dusted with sandpaper, so smoothly will it cut. Even in 
the common sorts of putty it is well to use some white lead if 
a hard putty is desired. Colored putty has a mixture of red 
ocher, lampblack, or other color, with the whiting. 

For stopping large cracks, especially when leaks are to bo 
stopped, the compound known as '^aquarium cement," and 
described in Part I, is altogether the best material that can ])o 
used. For puttying up the cracks in beehives it has no equal, 
as it does not contract and fall out, and it is so hard that no 
vermin can penetrate a crack that has been filled with it. 

Hard Putty. — Take the whiting, mash all the lumps out on 
the stone, and mix it into a stiff paste by adding equal parts 
of Japan and rubbing varnish; then add as much keg-lead ns 
you think will make it work free with the knife; then arid tlio 
rest of the whiting until you have it to suit you. Tliis will 



106 THE WOEKSHOP COMPANION. 

sandpaper good with one day^s drying. If you want putty that 
will dry quicker, take dry white lead and mix with equal parts 
of Japan and varnish, to which add a few drops of turpentine. 
This is very soft for puttying, but can be sandpapered in from 
two to three hours, it becoming perfectly hard in that time. 

Soft Putty. — Take 10 lbs. of whiting and 1 lb. of white lead ; 
mix with the necessary quantity of boiled linseed-oil, and add 
to it Y a gill of the best salad-oil. The last prevents the wiiite 
lead from hardening, and preserves the putty in a state suffi- 
ciently soft to adhere at all times, and not, by getting hard 
and cracking off, suffering the wet to enter, as is often the case 
wdth ordinary hard putty. 

To Soften Putty. — 1 lb. of pearlash, 3 lbs.* of quick stone 
lime; slake the lime in water, then add the pearlash, and make 
the whole about the consistence of paint. Apply it to both 
sides of the glass and let it remain for twelve hours, when the 
putty will be so softened that the glass may be taken out of 
the frame with the greatest facility. 

Water-glass Putty. — This is made with water-glass (silicate 
of soda) and zinc-white, and is highly recommended as a putty 
for iron. 

Rangoon Oil. — This material is frequently alluded to in 
industrial works and journals published in Great Britain. It 
is simply petroleum obtained from Rangoon, in Burmah. The 
crude product is known as Rangoon tar; the purified oil as 
Rangoon oil. Where Eangoon oil is prescribed, a good quality 
of kerosene may, in almost every case, be used in its stead. 

Razor-strops. — The following article, which we extract 
from ^' Trade Secrets," contains the pith of the accessible in- 
formation on this subject: — 

A good razor-strop is indispensable, not only to the barber 
and to those who shave themselves, but to all who require 
exceedingly sharp cutting tools. The surgeon, the wood-carver, 
the microseopist, and many other artists, are greatly aided in 
tlieir work by the use of a good strop. 

The basis of the best strop is good hard leather. By Jiar^ 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 107 

leather we do not meau leather that has been rendered stiff 
and hard by alternate wetting and drying, but leather that is 
so close and firm in texture as to be compressed with difficulty. 
Leather that is soft yields to the pressure of the edge of the 
tool, and rises up when this edge passes over it. Instead of a 
sharp edge, formed by two planes meeting each other, a blunt 
edge, formed by tlie meeting of two curved surfaces, is the 
result, and such an edge can never cut cleanly and well. Tiiis 
arises partly from the defective form, and also from the great 
increase in the cutting angle of the edge. 

Good hard calfskin probably makes the best surface for a 
strop. Excellent pieces may in general be obtained from the 
bookbinders for a trifle, and they are easily attached to tlie 
wooden holder by means of a little glue. Two surfaces are 
generally employed: one in its natural condition, and tlie 
other after being rubbed with some very hard but fine powder. 
Of the powders that have been suggested the following give 
good results: — 

1. Colcothar, or crocus, well burned and very finely pulver- 
ized. The crocus used for plate-polishing is too soft ; but, by 
heating, it becomes so hard that it polishes steel quite rapidly. 

2. Emery, brought to a state of the very finest powder by 
grinding and washing. 

3. The charcoal of wheat-straw, or the straw of grasses 
growing in swamps or marshy places. This charcoal owes its 
efficacy to the small quantity of silica which it contains. 

4. Diatomaceous earth. Of this the famous Tripoli powder 
is a good example. Such earth is found quite extensively in 
this country. In its natural state the particles are too coarse, 
and the earth is apt to be gritty from the presence of fine 
sand. It should be well ground in a mortar and carefully 
washed. 

5. The fine carbonaceous dust deposited in gas-retorts during 
the process of making gas. The particles of this black dust 
are as hard as diamonds, and cut steel rapidly: they are, in 
fact, very minute diamonds. All these powders ought to be 



108 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

carefully washed, or rather ^' elutriated/^ so as to separate tlie 
coarser particles and the impalpable dust, which does no good, 
but, on the contrary, clogs the cutting action of the material. 
After being carefully washed the powder is dried, and either 
mixed with a little tallow and wax, or the leather is first 
rubbed very lightly with the greasy mixture, and then very 
lightly coated with the powder. When made into cakes with 
grease the material is known as ^^razor-paste," and is sold as 
such. Crocus, in the form of cakes and sticks, can also be 
found in most tool-stores. 

Diamond-dust, or the powder produced by rubbing diamonds 
against each other in the process of cutting and polishing 
them, possesses very powerful cutting qualities; and when 
properly used on suitable ^4aps" or metal blocks, it enables 
us to give a very keen edge to every species of cutlery. Cooley 
tells us that ^^the discovery, or assumed discovery, of this fact, 
a few years since, led certain knaves to extensively advertise 
and puff a spurious preparation (powdered quartz) under the 
name of diamond-dust. In a short time the demand for the 
fictitious article became immense. It soon, however, acquired 
a bad notoriety. Instead of sharpening cutting instruments 
it infallibly destroyed their edge, and was particularly unfor- 
tunate in converting razors into saws. This discovery was 
not made until it was in the hands of the majority of the adults 
in the kingdom ; nor before the scamps who had manufactured 
and vended it had realized a moderate fortune." 

It is very evident, however, that the evil effects in this case 
arose from wrong methods of manufacture and preparation. 
Quartz crystals, which have been frequently sold as ^diamonds,* 
under the names of '^California diamonds," ' 'Alaska diamonds," 
etc., were ground as finely as ordinary stamping-mills would 
grind them : the powder was bolted or sifted, and in this state 
placed on the market. Now, it is the last degree of pulveriza- 
tion that c6sts in this case. It is easy to reduce the quartz to 
coarse powder, and not very difficult to obtain a tolerably fine 
powder ; but to get a quartz powder sufficiently fine and free 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 109 

from coarse particles to serve as a polisher or sharpener for 
tjutlery is a more difficult matter. From experiments we have 
made it would seem that pulverized quartz might be a very 
Valuable grinding and polisliing material ; and as it can be had 
in almost unlimited quantities for nothing, it offers a fine field 
for enterprise. When thoroughly ground it should be first 
sifted or bolted, and then washed or elutriated, so as to sep- 
arate all grit. 

Smoke-stains. — To remove smoky stains from walls brusli 
them with a broom; then wash them over with strong pearlash 
water, and immediately rinse them with clean water before 
the pearlash is dry. When dry, give the walls a thin coat of 
freshly slaked lime, containing a liberal proportion of alum 
dissolved in hot water. Finish with whiting and good size. • 
Be careful not to apply the size distemper until the lime-wash 
is dry, as the latter will destroy the strength of the size if the 
two come in contact while wet. 

Spence's Metal. — Great hopes were at one time entertained 
in regard to this mixture; but of late it seems to have lost 
favor. It is, however, a really valuable preparation for some 
pui-poses. It is prepared by melting together the three sul- 
phides of iron, zinc, and lead, with sulphur. The resulting 
dark gray mass possesses great tenacity, small power of eon- 
ducting heat, a specific gravity of 3*4, and a melting point of 
about 320 deg. Fah. In congealing it expands like type-metal, 
so that it fills every crevice of the mold and gives a most 
accurate impression. If, when melted, it is poured on a plate 
on which the impression of the hand has been made, the cast- 
ing will show all the lines and markings of the palm. 

It possesses in a remarkable degree the power of resisting 
atmospheric and corrosive influences. Alkalies, acids, and 
even aqua regia have little or no effect on it except at a com- 
paratively high temperature. Its surface was scarcely cor- 
roded after being exposed to the action of aqua regia for four 
weeks. As a cement for joining pipes it is invaluable; and it 
has been extensively used in England for gas and water pipes. 



110 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

Spong:es. — The sponge is one of the most useful articles in 
the household and in the arts, and it is well to know both how 
to choose it and how to care for it. The best sponges come 
from the Mediterranean, and are found compressed and dried, 
so that when soaked and fully expanded they increase to sev- 
eral times the bulk which they have in the compressed state. 
lu selecting a sponge see tliat it is not loaded with sand and 
limy matter. To cleanse sponges from these impurities they 
are beaten, washed in water, and sometimes soaked in acid. 
It is said, however, that the use of mineral acids destroys the 
fiber of the sponge, and this is very probably the case. It is 
possible that dilute acetic acid might be used without any bad 
effects ; and the cheap acid obtained from wood by destructive 
distillation would answer every purpose. 

Second-hand sponges are frequently offered for sale. These 
are picked up in various places, washed, soaked in solution of 
chloride of lime or soda, again washed in clean water, and 
dried. Such sponges do not last long: they are frequently 
half rotten before they reach the bleaclier^s hands; and if he 
does not do his work thoroughly they may even convey infec- 
tious matter. But being cheap and pretty they meet with a 
ready sale. 

For all ordinary purposes the dark color of the sponge is no 
objection; but when a wliite sponge is desired the following 
method of bleaching has been highly recommended; — 

Having made the sponges free from sand and calcareous 
matter by gently beating them, wash them in water, squeeze 
tliem as dry as possible, and then place a few at a time in a 
solution of permanganate of potassa, made by dissolving one 
hundred and eighty grains of the salt in five pints of water, 
and pouring a portion of the solution into a clean glazed vessel. 
Let them remain a few moments until they have acquired a 
dark mahogany-brown color, when they are to be squeezed by 
hand to free them from the solution. Tbey are then dropped 
a few at a time into a bleaching solution made as follows: 
Hyposulphite of soda, ten ounces; water, sixty-eight fluid 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION, 111 

ounces; whe,n dissolved, add five fluid ounces of muriatic acid. 
This solution should be made the day before being wanted for 
use, in order that the sulphur precipitated by the acid may be 
easily separated. This solution is poured off from the sulphur, 
and, if necessary, is strained through muslin into a glazed 
vessel. The sponges are allowed to remain in this solution a 
few moments, squeezing them with tlie hand occasionally in 
order that every part may be reached by the fluid ; then squeeze 
out and wash through several waters to rid them of the sul- 
phurous odors. They may be completely deodorized by wash- 
ing them in a weak alkaline solution of bicarbonate of soda, 
about one hundred grains to the pint, and then wasliing 
through several waters to free from any traces of the alkali. 
Much caution must be used in this last operation lest the 
bleaching effect of the previous solutions be partly neutralized. 
When the sponges are nearly dry immerse them into a solution 
of glycerine water, one half ounce to the pint, squeeze them 
as dry as possible, and dry them in the shade. Be sure and 
not let direct sunlight on them until dry. They will be as soft 
and white as wool. 

Sulphur Casts. — Sulphur is a favorite material with which 
to make casts of coins and similar articles. The process is as 
follows : — 

Prepare the coin or other body of which the mold is to be 
made, by slightly oiling the surface ; or if the body be made of 
plaster of Paris, the back of it is to touch the surface of water 
in a saucer or other convenient vessel, until the water just 
appears upon the surface, which will be known by its becoming 
more glossy. Then, having a sufficiently long strip of thick 
paper, from half an inch to an inch and a half in width, fold 
this round the coin; hold the paper between the thumb and 
fingers of the left hand, or if the medal should be large, or if a 
number are to be done at once, fasten the end of the paper 
with paste. Then melt by a very slow and gentle heat a 
little roll brimstone. When in a melted state, and while quite 
liquid, pour it steadily upon the coin. In a few minutes it wiJl 



112 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

become crystallized into a semitransparent mass, which may 
be removed from the coin or plaster cast, and will be found to 
be a fine and very exact counterpart of the original ; and having 
plaster of Paris afterward poured into it, it will yield a very 
perfect impression. 

Imitation coins may be made of sulphur by the following 
method : — 

Prepare first the requisite molds of both sides of the coin 
by pouring plaster of Paris on each side alternately. Make a 
line, or other mark, on each mold, to show the position that 
they are afterward to be placed in, that the heads and devices 
may be in such a position relative to each .other as they are in 
the original coin. Then melt the sulphur; — that is best which 
has been melted two or three times before, so that it has 
acquired a light brown color. When ready to pour, hold the 
two molds at the proper distance from each other, according 
to the thickness of the coin, and with the marks of both in line 
with each other, and wind round the edge of the molds a strip 
of card in such a manner that the card shall go very nearly 
round them, — a small vacuity only being left at the top. This 
being prepared, hold the card between the fingers and thumb, 
then pour in the sulphur, and as it shrinks, pour in more, until 
the space between the molds is full. It will immediately con- 
geal, and when removed it will be found to have taken a fine 
impression from the molds, and to have all the sharpness of 
the original coin. When taken out it may be trimmed with a 
knife around the edges, for sulphur has the property of re- 
maining soft for some considerable time after melting. To 
give the artificial coins clearness, and an appearance of an- 
tiquity, they must be rubbed all over with black lead, and then 
the black lead removed from the more prominent parts with a 
soft damp rag. A fine metallic appearance is given to medals 
by varnishing over the black lead surface with a weak solution 
of dragon^s blood in spirits of wine, instead of partially rubbing 
the black lead off. The molds must of course be damped pre- 
viously to using. 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 113 

Thatched Roofs. — Good straw makes a most excellent cov- 
ering for buildings in the country ; and as timber is becoming 
more valuable and slate can only be obtained from consider* 
able distances, it is probable that straw will be used more and 
more in the future. Thatch makes a warm and durable roof; 
and owing to its porosity it tends to keep the air in stables 
and outhouses pure and clear, since the law governing the 
^'Diffusion of the Gases" has full play. 

The great objection to thatch is the danger from fire; but it 
may be rendered comparatively incombustible by soaking it in 
whitewash made of lime, or whiting and size, in the usual way, 
to every four gallons of which has been added one pound or 
rather more of alum. Alum would suffice by itself; but the 
rain would wash it off. The lime and size form a film over 
every straw, insoluble in water. If the interior of a thatched 
roof be kept dry, it will last as long as the timber which sup- 
ports it. 

As regards the durability of thatch under ordinary con- 
ditions, Loudon makes the folio vying statement: — 

*' We have known many roofs of this kind in Scotland which 
have lasted the length of a farmer's lease (nineteen or twenty- 
one years) without any repairs; the surface of the thatch be- 
coming covered with growing moss excludes air and moisture, 
and prevents decomposition." 

Thatching is an art which requires a good deal of skill and 
experience ; and the difference between a well-made roof and 
one that has been put together by an unskillful hand is very 
great, both as regards efficiency and durability. In many parts 
of Europe thatching is a regular trade, to which the beginner 
serves an apprenticeship, as to any of the ordinary trades. 
The following directions, however, if carefully followed, will 
enable the amateur to cover a small building in a manner that 
is at least respectable : — 

Rye or wheat straw only should be used, and must be care- 
fully threshed with a flail to leave the straws unbroken. Bind 
in bundles, distributing the buts of the straws equally to each 



114 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

end of the bundle. A good roof can not be made if the straws 
all lie one way. It was always customary to make the band 
three feet long, as this gave a bundle of convenient size for 
handling. In a dry time we sat the bundles on end and threw 
water upon them a day or two before we used them. 

The rafters are placed in the usual way, and crossed by slats 
two by two, nailed 14 inches apart, though 12 inches will do 
equally well. 

Begin at the eaves and lay a row of bundles across. Have 
an iron needle 18 inches long prepared and threaded with 
oakum 8 feet long. Fasten the thread to the slat and pass the 
needle through the bundle to a boy stationed under the rafters, 
making three to four stitches to the bundle. The boy draws 
the cord up tight, and passes the needle up through again, but 
on the other side of the slat. By this means the first course is 
sewed on. Succeeding courses are treated in the same way, 
being laid so as to overlap the stitching. Lay the heaviest 
row of straw at the eaves to make it look well. When you 
come to the ridge, fold the tops of the straw over until you 
bring up the other side, then get some thin sods, 10 by 14 inches, 
and 1^ inches thick, and lay them neatly upon the top, using 
a small piece of board to clap them all slick and smooth. 
Boards put on like ordinary ridge-boards will do instead of 
sods, if preferred. 

Get the point of an old scythe, about 18 inches long; attach 
a handle, so that it will be like a long knife, and with it 
** switch down" the roof all over, to carry off all the loose 
straws, and trim the others off smooth. If well done, the roof 
will be as smooth as a board. Stretch a cord along the eaves 
the whole length of the building, and trim off straight by it, 
leaving the outside a little lower than the inside, which will 
prevent its looking thick and heavy. 

A roof made in this way will not be injured by wind and 
rain, and it ought to last from 25 to 30 years in the Middle 
States. 



THE WOllESfiOl> C0MI>AN10N. 115 

Tiers- Argent. — This alloy ts so called because it is sup- 
posed to consist of one third silver. According to the analyses 
Of Dr. Winkler its composition is: copper, 59*06; silver, 27-5G; 
zinc, 9*57; nickel^ 3'42. This alloy is used instead of pure 
gilver in the manufacture of spoons, forks, and other forms of 
plate, for which purpose it is extremely well adapted, as it is 
harder than the ordinary alloy of silver, and its color and 
polish are as good. It would form an admirable material for 
the cases Of the cheap but serviceable watches that are now 
coming into such general use* 

Veneering. — The softest woods should be chosen for veneer* 
ing upon, — sucli as common cedar or yellow pine. Perhaps 
the best of all for the purpose is "arrow board," twelve foot 
lengths of which can be had of perfectly straight grain, and 
without a knot. Of course no one ever veneers over a knot. 
Hard wood can be veneered, — boxwood with ivory,for instance ; 
but wood that will warp and twist, such as nasty cross-grained 
mahogany, must be avoided. 

The veneer, and the wood on which it is to be laid, must 
both be carefully prepared, the former by taking out all marks 
of the saw on both sides with a fine toothing plane, the latter 
with a coarser toothing plane. If the veneer happens to be 
broken in doing this, it may be repaired at once with a bit of 
stiff paper glued upon it on the upper side. The veneer should 
be cut rather larger than the surface to be covered; if much 
twisted it may be damped and placed under a board and weight 
over night. This saves much trouble; but veneers are so 
cheap — about two cents a foot — that it is not worth while 
taking much trouble about refractory pieces. The wood to be 
veneered must now be sized with thin glue : the ordinary glue- 
pot will supply this by dipping the brush first into the glue, 
then into the boiling water in the outer vessel. This size 
must be allowed to dry before the veneer is laid. 

We will suppose now that the veneering process is about to 
commence. The glue in good condition, and boiling hot, the 
bench cleared, a basin of hot water with the veneering hammer 



116 THE WORKSHOP CoMt^ANIoN. 

and a sponge ill Itj a cloth or two, and everything in such 
position that one Will not interfere with or "be in the way ol 
another. 

First, damp With hot water that side of the VeMeer which is 
Hot to be glued, then glue the othel* side. Second, glue over 
as quickly as possible the wood itself, previously toothed and 
sized. Third, bring the veneer rapidly to it^ pressing it dOwti 
With the outspread handSj taking care that the edges of the 
Veneer overlay a little all round. Fourth, grasp the veneering 
hammer close to the pane (shaking off the hot Water froin it) 
and the handle pointing away from you; wriggle it about, 
pressing down tightly, and squeezing the glue from the center 
out at the edges. If it is a large piece of stuff which is to be 
veneered, the assistance of a hot flatiron from the kitchen will 
be wanted to make the glue liquid again after it has set ; but 
don^t let it dry the wood underneath it, or it will burn the 
wood and scorch the veneer, and ruin the work. Fifth, having 
got out all the glue possible, search the surface for blisters, 
which will at once be betrayed by the sound they give when 
tapped with the handle of the hammer; the hot iron (or the 
inner vessel of the glue-pot itself, which often answers the 
purpose) must be applied, and the process with the hammer 
repeated. 

When the hammer is not in the hand it should be in the hot 
water. 

The whole may now be sponged over with hot water, and 
wiped as dry as can be. And observe throughout the above 
process never have any slop and wet about the work that you 
can avoid. Whenever you use the sponge, squeeze it well 
first. Damp and heat is wanted, not wet and heat. It is a 
good thing to have the sponge in the left hand nearly all the 
time, ready to take up any moisture or squeezed-out glue from 
the front of the hammer. 

So much for laying veneers with the hammer, which, though 
a valuable tool for the amateur, is not much used in the best 
cabinet-makers' shops. Cauls are adopted instead. They are 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 117 

made of wood, the sbape and size of the surface to be veneered ; 
or, better still, of rolled zinc plate, and being made very hot 
before a good blaze of shavings, they are clamped down on the 
work when the veneer is got into its place. They must be 
previously soaped to prevent them sticking to the veneer. 
The whole is then left to dry together. 

The hammer is quite suflScient for most amateurs. I have 
laid veneers with it five feet long by eighteen inches wide 
without assistance, and without leaving a blister. Cauls, how- 
ever, are very necessary if a double curved surface has to be 
veneered, or a concave surface: they need not be used for a 
simple convex surface. By wetting well one side of the veneer 
it will curl up, and can easily be laid on such a surface; but 
it will be well to bind the whole round with some soft string 
to assist in keeping it down while drying. 

"Waterproofing. — A few years ago a patent was taken out 
by Dr. Stenhouse for employing paraffin as a means of render- 
ing leather waterproof, as well as the various textile and felted 
fabrics; and since then additional patents have been granted 
for an extension of and improvement on the previous one, 
which consisted chiefly in combining the paraffin with various 
proportions of drying oil, it having been found that paraffin 
alone, especially when applied to fabrics, became to a consid- 
erable extent detached from the fiber of the cloth after a short 
time, owing to its great tendency to crystallize. The presence, 
however, of even a small quantity of drying oil causes the 
paraffin to adhere much more firmly to the texture of the cloth, 
from the oil gradually becoming converted into a tenacious 
resm by absorption of oxygen. 

In the application of paraffin for waterproofing purposes, it 
is first melted together with the requisite quantity of drying 
oil, and cast into blocks. The composition can then be applied 
to fabrics by rubbing them over with a block of it, either cold 
or gently warmed, or the mixture may be melted and laid on 
with a brush, the complete impregnation being effected by 
gubsequently passing it between hot rollers, When this 



118 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

paraffin mixture has been applied to cloth such as that em- 
ployed for blinds or tents it renders it very repellant to water, 
although still pervious to air. 

Cloth paraffined in this manner forms an excellent basis for 
such articles as capes, tarpaulins, etc., which require to be 
rendered quite impervious by subsequently coating them with 
drying oil, — the paraffin in a great measure preventing the 
w^ell-known injurious influence of drying oil on the fiber of the 
cloth. The paraffin mixture can also be very advantageously 
applied to the various kinds of leather. One of the most con- 
venient ways of effectiug this is to coat the skins or manufac- 
tured articles — such as boots, shoes, harness, pump-buckets, 
etc. — with the melted composition, and then to gently heat 
the articles until it is entirely absorbed. When leather is im- 
pregnated with the mixture it is not only rendered perfectly 
waterproof, but also stronger and more durable. The beneficial 
effects of this process are peculiarly observable in the case of 
boots and shoes, which it renders very firm without destroying 
their elasticity. It therefore not only makes them exceedingly 
durable, but possesses an advantage over ordinary dubbing 
in not interfering with the polish of these articles, which, on 
the whole, it rather improves. The superiority of paraffin over 
most other materials for some kinds of waterproofing consists 
in its comparative cheapness, in being easily applied, and in 
not materially altering the color of fabrics, which in tlie case 
of light shades and white cloth is of very considerable import- 
p,nce. 

Water-tight "Walls. — The interior walls of the gate-houses 
of tlie Croton lieservoir in Central Park, New York, have been 
successfully treated according to the Sylvester process, which 
is fully described in a paper read by Mr. Dearborn before the 
American Society of Civil Engineers, >Iay 4, 1870. 

The process consists in using two washes or solutions. The 
first, composed of three quarters of a pound of castile soap 
dissolved in one gallon of water, laid on at a boiling heat with 
^ flat brush. Wheif tliis has dried^ twentj^-four houp3 tetep 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 119 

apply iu like manner the second wash of half a pound of alum 
dissolved in four gallons of wiiter. The temperature of this 
when applied should be 60 to 70 deg. Fah. After twenty-four 
hours apply another soap wash, and so on alternately until 
four coats of each have been put on. Experiments showed 
that this was sufficient to make the wall water-tight under 
forty feet head of water. 

At the time of application the walls had been saturated, and 
the weather was cold. The gate-chambers were covered over 
and heated tlioroughly with large stoves. The drying, clean- 
ing the walls with wire brushes, and applying the mixture, 
took ninety-six days. Twenty-seven tons of coal were used 
for the drying, and one ton for heating the soap solution. 
Eighteen thousand eight hundred and thirty square feet of 
wall were washed with four coats. The drying and cleaning 
of the walls cost 6^ cents per square foot, and the plant, ma- 
terials, and labor of applying the wash cost 3f cents per square 
foot. 

"Wax-milk. — This is a partly saponified emulsion of wax, 
which has been sold extensively as a furniture polish. It may 
be prepared from ordinary beeswax, but the cheaper Japanese 
wax answers quite as well. Boil one part of yellow soap and 
three parts Japanese wax in twenty-one parts of water, until 
the soap dissolves. When cold it has the consistency of salve, 
and will keep in closed vessels as long as desired. It can be 
used for polishing carved woodwork and for waxing ballroom 
floors, as it is cheaper than the solution of wax in turpentine, 
and does not stick or smei. so disagreeably as the latter. 

"White Metal. — This term has been applied to a large 
number of alloys of ver}' varying composition. (See Coj^jyer^ 
Blanched; Albata; Tutania, and others.) An alloy which is 
very generally known in the arts as ''white metal" is com- 
posed of antimony, 32; tin, 10; brass, 8. Another "white 
metal" is composed of lead, 10: bismuth, 5; antimony, 4. 

"Wood. — Probably the oldest timber in the world which has 
-beeu subjected to. the use of man is that which is found in the 



120 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

ancient temples of Egypt. It is found in connection with 
stone-work which is known to be at least 4,000 years old. 
This wood, and the only wood used in the construction of the 
temple, is in the form of ties, holding the end of one stone to 
another in its upper surface. When two blocks were laid in 
place, then it appears that an excavation about an inch deep 
was made in each block, into which an hour-glass shaped tie 
was driven. It is therefore very difficult to force any stone 
from its position. The ties appear to have been the tamarisk, 
or chittim-wood, of which the ark was constructed, a sacred 
tree in ancient Egypt, and now very rarely found in the valley 
of the Nile. Those dovetailed ties are just as sound now 
as on the day of their insertion. Although fuel is extremely 
scarce in that country, those bits of wood are not large enough 
to make it an object with Arabs to heave off layer after 
layer of heavy stone for so small a prize. Had they been 
of bronze, half the old temples would have been destroyed 
ages ago, so precious would they have been for various 
• purposes. 

Eankine says there are certain appearances characteristic 
of good wood, to what class soever it belongs. In the same 
species of wood that specimen will in general be the strongest 
and most durable which has grown the slowest, as shown by 
the narrowness of the annular rings. The cellular tissue, as 
seen in the medullary rays (when visible), should be hard and 
compact. The vascular or fibrous tissue should adhere firmly 
together, and should show no wooliness at a freshly cut sur- 
face, nor should it clog the teeth of the saw with loose fibers. 
If the wood is colored, darkness of color is in general a sign of 
strength and durability. The freshly cut surface of the wood 
should be firm and shining, and should have somewhat of a 
translucent appearance. In wood of a given species the heavy 
specimens are in general the stronger and more lasting. 
Among the resinous woods, those having the least resin in 
their pores, and among non-resinous woods those which have 
least sap or gum in them, are in general the strongest and 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 121 

most lasting. Timber should be free from such blemishes as 
*^clefts," or cracks radiating from the center; '^cup-sliakes," 
or cracks which partially separate one layer from another; 
*' upsets/' when the fibers have been crippled by compression; 
^Svindgalls,'^ or wounds in a layer of wood, which have been 
covered and concealed by the growth of subsequent layers 
over them ; and hollow or spongy places in the center or else- 
where, indicating the commencement of decay. 

The finest and most costly of the veneer-woods is French 
walnut, — a wood that does not come from France, but from 
Persia and Asia Minor. The tree is crooked and dwarfed, and 
is solely valuable for the burls that can be obtained from it. 
These are large tough excrescences, growing upon the trunk. 
In this the grain is twisted into the most singular and com- 
plicated figures. The intricacy of these figures, combined 
with their symmetry, is one of the elements that determine 
the value of the burl. Color and soundness are other elements 
of value, which varies very widely. Burls worth from $500 to 
$1000 each are not rare ; and at the Paris Exposition of 1878 
one burl weighing 2,200 pounds was sold for $5,000, or upwards 
of $2 a pound. 

Polishing with xJharcodl. — The following method of polish- 
ing wood with charcoal is now much used by French cabinet- 
makers, and produces that well-known beautiful dead black 
color, with sharp clear edges and a smooth surface, which give 
the wood the appearance of ebony. When articles of furniture 
finished in this way are viewed side by side with furniture 
rendered black by paint and varnish, the difference is so 
sensible that the considerable margin of price between the 
two kinds explains itself without need of any commentary. 
The operations are much longer and much more minute in 
charcoal polishing, which respects every detail of the carving, 
while paint and varnish would clog up the holes and widen 
the ridges. Only carefully selected woods, of a close and com- 
pact grain, are employed. These are covered with a coat of 
extract of logwood and nutgalls dissolved in waiter ; aiid alpap^sl; 



122 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

immediately afterward with another coat composed chiefly of 
sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, dissolved in water. The two 
compositions in blending penetrate the wood and give it an 
indelible tinge, and at the same time render it impervious to 
the attacks of insects. 

When these two coats are sufficiently dry the surface of the 
wood is first rubbed with a very hard brush of scouri^ng grass, 
and then with charcoal of substances as light and friable as 
possible, because if a single hard grain remained in the char- 
coal this alone would scratch the surface, which should be 
rendered perfectly smooth. The flat parts are rubbed with 
natural stick charcoal, the indented portions and crevices with 
charcoal powder. At mice, almost simultaneously, and alter- 
nately with the charcoal, the workman also rubs the piece of 
furniture with flannel soaked in linseed-oil and the essence of 
turpentine. These pouncings, repeated several times, cause 
the charcoal powder and the oil to penetrate into the wood, 
giving the article of furniture a beautiful color and perfect 
polish, which has none of the flaws of ordinary varnish. Black 
wood, polished with charcoal, is coming day by day to be in 
greater demand. It is most serviceable; it does not tarnish 
like gilding, nor grow yellow like white wood ; and in furnish- 
ing a drawing-room it agrees very happily with gilt bronzes 
and rich stuffs. In the dining-room, too, it is thoroughly in 
its place to show off the plate to the greatest advantage; and 
in the library it supplies a capital framework for handsomel5 
bound books. 

Stains for Wood. — Leo, of Bensheim, Germany, recommends 
the following stains for oak, pine, beech, poplar, etc. 

1. Yellow Stain. — Wash over with a hot, concentrated solu- 
tion of picric acid, and when dry, polish the wood. 

2. Ebony Black. — Wash with a concentrated aqueous solu- 
tion of extract of logwood several times. Then with a solution 
of acetate of iron of 14 deg. Baume, which is repeated until a 
fieep black is produced. 

3. Gray.— One part of nitrate of silver dissolved in 50 parts 



THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 123 

of distilled water. Wash over twice ; then with hydrochloric 
acid, and afterwards with water of ammonia. The wood is 
allowed to dry in the dark, and is then finished in oil and 
polished. 

4. Light Wahiut. — Dissolve one part of permanganate of 
potassium in 30 parts of pure water, and apply twice in suc- 
cession ; and after an interval of five minutes wash with clean 
water, and when dry oil and polish. 

5. Dark Walnut. — Same as for light walnut; but after the 
washing with water, the darker veins are made more prom- 
inent with a solution of acetate of iron. 

6. Darh Mahogany. — Introduce into a bottle 15 grains alkanet 
root, 30 grains aloes, 30 grains powdered dragon's blood, ^nd 
500 grains 95 per cent alcohol, closing the mouth of the bottle 
with a piece of bladder, keeping it in a warm place for three 
or four days, with occasional shaking; then filtering the liquid. 
The wood is first mordanted with nitric acid; and when dry 
washed with the stain once or oftener, according to the de- 
sired shade ; then the wood being dried, oiled, and polished. 

7. Light Mahogany. — Same as dark mahogany, but the stain 
being only applied once. The veins of true mahogany may be 
imitated by the use of acetate of .iron skillfully applied. 

A favorite recipe for staining wood a brilliant yellow-brown 
is nitric acid. When strong nitric acid is rubbed over any of 
the light-colored woods it at once produces a very rich color; 
and after washing the wood with water, and drying it, and 
oiling it with linseed-oil, the surface presents such a hand- 
some appearance that the process has been strongly recom- 
mended, and the recipe will be found in many works on 
angling and recommended for fishing-rods. Where mere ap- 
pearance is all that is needed, the process is a very good one; 
but where, as in fishing-rods, it is desii*able to retain the full 
strength and elasticity of the material, nitric acid should never 
be used. Any one can prove, by simple and easy experiments, 
that the strength of a rod is greatly reduced by tho ^-ctioi) pf 

the mi^i 



124 THE WORKSHOP COMPANION. 

Zinc. — By means of the following simple process, recom- 
mended by Bottger, a brilliant coating of zinc maybe deposited 
on brass or copper : Boil a large excess of so-called zinc-dust, 
some time, with a concentrated solution of caustic soda, or 
potash, and place the copper or brass articles to be coated in 
the boiling liquid. By continuing the heating, after a few 
minutes a beautiful mirror-like film of zinc will form upon 
them by the deposition of the alkaline solution, in consequence 
of their electro-negative character in combination with the 
zinc. It is suggested that the process is applicable to the 
preparation of disks for dry-piles, and also for forming a layer 
of tombac, by heating a copper article thus coated, carefully, 
to about 248 to 284 deg. (best under olive-oil), when the zinc 
will unite with the copper support to form a gold-tinted tombac, 
and the article need only be quickly cooled in water, or some 
other suitable liquid, as soon as the desired color is apparent. 

Coloring Zinc. — A chemical process for covering zinc with 
colored coatings has lately been described by Dr. L. Stille. 
The articles of zinc are first brightened by scouring with quartz 
sand, moistened with dilute muriatic acid, putting them quickly 
in water, and then carefully wdping them drj^ with white blot- 
ting-paper. To insure success, however, it is necessary to 
employ zinc as free as possible from lead, and to have it as 
bright as a mirror. When these conditions are fulfilled, the 
metal may be coated with a variety of beautiful colors by 
immersion in a solution of alkaline tartrate of copper for a 
shorter or longer interval of time, depending on the color that 
is desired. 

Blacic Color for Zinc— Clenn the surface carefully with fine 
sand or emery and sulphuric acid, and immerse for an instant 
in a solution of sulphate of nickel and ammonia, — 4 parts in 
40 parts of water acidulated with 1 part of sulphuric acid. 
Wash and dry. When burnished, this tp-keg a toe bronze 
color. 



IKDEX. 



Adamantine 7 

Adhesion of nails 90 

Air, weight of 35 

All-nights 84 

Anacharis alsinastrnm 19 

Anti-attrition Metal 33 

Aquarium 8 

Aurum Musivum 27 

Authorship 28 

Babbit-metal 33 

Balloon 35 

Bast 37 

Bedbugs 37 

Birch-bark, oil of 40 

Birdlime 42 

Black, Brunswick 43 

Black color for zinc .- 124 

Black Flux 61 

Bladders 43 

Bladder as a lute 72 

Bleaching Liquid 99 

Bleaching Sponges 110 

Boron Diamond 7 

Bottle Lute 73 

Breathing of Aquatic Animals.. 9 

Brick, oil of 94 

Brilliants, Fahlun 60 

Broaches, Diamond 57 

Bronzing Plaster Casts 104 

Bruises in Furniture 63 

Bmnswick Black 43 

Burls for Veneer 121 

Caddis-worm 21 

Cadmium 45 

Cameos ..^».* 45 



Camphor, for Moths 69 

Carpets, to Clean 68 

Carved work, care of 64 

Casehardening 46 

Castings and Patterns 51 

Castors, care of 63 

Casts, Sulphur Ill 

Cauls for Veneering 116 

Cements for Aquaria 13 

Cement, Lime 72 

Cement, Rubber 72 

Cement, Soft 73 

Cement, Water-glass 73 

Chairs, to repair 68 

Chamois, to clean 54 

Charcoal, Polishing Wood with. .121 

Christison's Flux 61 

Clay Lute 74 

Clay Retorts, Lute for . .' 75 

Coating for Glass Vessels 74 

Coloring Zinc 124 

Colors, to make adhere 99 

Cornish Reducing Flux 61 

Court-plaster 54 

Crayfish 21 

Cream, Painters' 98 

Crucibles 55 

Crude Flux 61 

Crustaceans for the Aquarium.. 21 

Diamond, Boron 7 

Diamond-dust for Strops 108 

Diamond Mills 57 

Dubbing 57 

Ebonizing 58 

Ebony 58 



126 



INDEX, 



Ebony, black stain for wood 121 

Eelskin for laces 59 

Enamel. Luminous 96 

Engravings, to clean 67 

Engravings, to transfer 59 

Face, to take Cast of 102 

Factitious Oil of Brick 94 

Fahlun Brilliants 60 

Fat Lute 71 

Fazie Metal 60 

Feeding Fish 26 

Files of Diamond 57 

Finish, Porcelain 104 

Fire-balloons 36 

Fish for Aquarium 22 

Floor of Aquarium 16 

Fluxes 60 

Fresenius' Flux 61 

Fresh-water Aquarium 11 

Furniture, Care of 61 

Fusible Alloy 45 

Gas-holders, Bladders for. ...... 44 

German Paste 75 

Gimp, Care of 64 

Glass Vessels, Coating for 74 

Glaziers' Putty 71, 104 

Globes for Aquaria 12 

Goldfish 23 

Gold, Mosaic 27 

Gravel for Aquarium 17 

Gray Stain for Wood 122 

Greasing Nails 93 

Gumption for Artists 75 

Gut, Silkworm 75 

Gutta-percha 75 

Gypsum, to Harden 103 

Hammer, Laying Veneers with. .115 

Hands, Care of the 78 

Hard Putty 105 

Harness, Care of 79 

Harness, Polish for 30 



Icehouses 81 

Ice, Packing 83 

Inkstains. to Remove 64 

Insects for Aquarium 19 

Insect Powder 40 

Insects, to Destroy 68 

Iron, Paint for 97 

Iron Retorts, Lute for 75 

Iron, to Caseharden 46 

Leather for Strops 107 

Leather, Russian 40 

Lights, Night 84 

Lime Cement 72 

Lining Pictures. 100 

Luminous Enamel 96 

Luminous Paint 95 

Lutes 70 

Magic Lantern Pictures 86 

Mahogany Stain for Wood 123 

Manuscript, Am't of Matter in.. 31 

Marble for Aquaria 13 

Marble Table-tops 65 

Marine Aquarium 11 

Mattrass 27 

Metal. Anti-attrition 33 

MetaL Babbit 33 

Metal, Spence's 39 

Methylated Spirit 86 

Mohr's Lute 75 

Moiree Metallique 87 

Mollusks for Aquarium 19 

Mortars for Light 84 

Morveau's Flux 61 

Moths, to destroy 68 

Moxon's recipe for casehardening, 47 

Nails 89 

Nets for Fishing 23 

Night-lights 84 

Nine Oils 94 

Nitric Acid Stain for Wood.... 123 
Non3Ai*§ical Cppiplication 49 



INDEX. 



127 



Oil for Harness 80 

Oil-gas Oil.--. 95 

Oil of Birch-bark 40 

Oil of Brick 94 

Oil of Brick, Factitious 94 

Oil, Rangoon 106 

Oils, Nine 94 

Opaque Sides for Tanks 13 

Origin of Names of Nails 89 

Packing for Icehouses 82 

Paint for Iron 97 

Paint, Luminous 95 

Paint, to remove 65 

Painters' Cream 98 

Paintings, Repairing 99 

Paper for Manuscript 29 

Paraffined Cloth 118 

Paris, Plaster of 72 

Paste for cloth 69 

Paste, Grerman 75 

Patterns and Castings 51 

Pictures for Magic Lantern 86 

Pictures, to clean 66 

Pith for cleaning pinions 101 

Plants, action on water 9 

Plants for Aquarium 18 

Plaster Casts 101 

Plaster of Paris 72 

Plaster of Paris and Parafiane.-103 

Poison for Bedbugs 40 

Polish for Floors 69 

Polishing Marble 65 

Polishing Wood with Charcoal.. 121 

Porcelain Finish 104 

Powders for Casehardening 51 

Powder for Strops 107 

Powder, Insect 40 

Putty 104 

Putty, Glaziers' 71, 104 

Putty, Hard 105 

Putty, Soft 106 

Putty, to soften 106 

Putty, Water-glass 106 



Quartz for Razor-strops 108 

Rangoon Oil 106 

Ratholes, to stop 104 

Razor-strops 106 

Repairing Furniture 62 

Reptiles for Aquarium 22 

Retorts, Lute for 75 

Rockwork for Aquaria 14 

Roofs, Thatched 113 

Rubber Cement 72 

Russian Leather 40 

Rust, Effect of 92 

Scavengers, Aqua*ium - 10 

Sea-shells in Aquaria 14 

Sea- water, Artificial 11 

Shrimp, Fresh-wMer 21 

Shrinkage of Castings 53 

Silkworm Gut 75 

Slate for Aquaria 13 

Smoke-stains 109 

Soap-bubble Balloons 37 

Soft Cement 73 

Soft Putty 106 

Soil for Aquarium 16 

Spenee's Metal 109 

Spikes, table of 92 

Spirit, Methylated 86 

Sponges 110 

Stains for Wood 122 

Stains, Smoke 109 

Stains, to remove 65 

Stenhouse on Waterproofing .-.117 

Stickleback, nest of 23 

Stocking an Aquarium 17 

Straw for Thatching Il3 

Strops, Razor 106 

Surfaces and Volumes 36 

Sulphur Casts Ill 

Sulphur, Fumigation with 39 

Table of Nails 92 

Table of Weight of Castings.... 55 



128 



INDEX. 



Tadpoles for Aquarium 22 

Tanks for Aquaria 11 

Taylors Flux 61 

Tiers Argent 115 

Thatched Roofs 113 

Valisneria Spiralis 19 

Varnish, to remove 65 

Veneering 115 

Veneer Wood 121 

Volumes and Surfaces 36 

Walnut Stain for Wood 123 

Water for Aquaria 14 

Water-glass Cement 73 

Water-glass Putty 106 



Waterproofing *.**..,* 117 

Watertight Walls 118 

Wax Lute 73 

Wax Milk 119 

Weight of Air 35 

Weight of Castings 52 

White Flux 61 

White Metal 119 

Wood , 119 

Wood for Veneering 115 

Wood, How to Select ....120 

Yellow Cadmium 45 

Yellow Stain for Wood 122 

Zinc 124 



